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    Interventional procedure overview of botulinum toxin type A injection into the urethral sphincter for idiopathic chronic non-obstructive urinary retention

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    Validity and generalisability of the studies

    • Studies were limited with small number of patients and short period of follow-up. There was only 1 RCT comparing botulinum with placebo treatment.

    • Patients refractory to conventional treatments and with heterogeneous non-neurogenic sphincter functions/causes (DV, DU, and PRES, Fowler's syndrome) were included in the studies.

    • There is no standardised treatment protocol. botulinum injections were diluted with saline but the dose, number of injections, sites and depth of injection given varied across studies and in some studies repeat urethral injections were given.

    • Most of the included studies were conducted by a research group in Taiwan and only 1 small study was from the UK.