Interventional procedure overview of biodegradable spacer insertion to reduce rectal toxicity during radiotherapy for prostate cancer
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Summary of key evidence on biodegradable spacer insertion to reduce rectal toxicity during radiotherapy for prostate cancer
Study 1 Mariados N 2015, Hamstra DA 2017, 2018, Karsh 2018
Study type | Randomised Controlled Trial |
Country | US (multicentre) |
Recruitment period | 2012 to 2013 |
Study population and number | n=222 (149 with spacer versus 73 without spacer [control]) patients with clinical stage T1 or T2 prostate cancer (NCCN low or intermediate risk). |
Age and sex | Mean age: spacer group 66.4 years; control group: 67.7% years; 100% male |
Patient selection criteria | Men with stage T1 and T2 prostate cancer, a Gleason score of <7, PSA concentration of 20 nanograms/ml, and a Zubrod performance status of 0–1, planning to have image guided intensity modulated radiotherapy (IG-IMRT) were included. Patients with a prostate volume of >80 cm3, extracapsular extension of disease or >50% positivity biopsy scores, metastatic disease, indicated for or had recent androgen deprivation therapy and prior prostate surgery or radiotherapy were excluded. |
Technique | Intervention:Injection of a prostate-rectum spacer (polyethylene glycol hydrogel‑SpaceOAR system) during IG-IMRT (total dose of 79.2Gy in 1.8 Gy fractions to the prostate with or without the seminal vesicles delivered 5 days weekly)A planning target volume of 5-10mm was used. Control – IG-IMRT alone (total dose of 79.2Gy in 1.8 Gy in 44 fractions to the prostate with or without the seminal vesicles delivered 5 days weekly) with no injection. Patients had CT and MRI scans for treatment planning, followed with fiducial marker placement using transperineal approach. Antibiotic prophylaxis was administered before procedure 95% of time. General anaesthesia in 36%, local in 31%, monitored anaesthesia in 26%, conscious sedation in 6%, other in 10%. |
Follow-up | Median 37 months (15 months, Mariados N, 2015; 3 years Hamstra DA 2017, 2018, Karsh 2018) |
Conflict of interest/source of funding | The study was supported by research funding from Augmenix. Two authors are shareholders and 1 author received speaking honoraria from the manufacturer. 2 authors have provided consulting services. |
Analysis
Follow-up issues: short follow-up period. Patients evaluated at baseline, weekly during IG-IMRT, and at 3, 6, 12 and 15 months. Three patients were lost to follow up during the study period (15 months). Extended follow up at 3 years was voluntary, with each institute choosing whether to participate. 63% of both control and spacer patients were available at extended follow up and no differences were found in the median follow-up period between the 2 treatment groups (control median 37 months, spacer median 37.1 months, p>0.05).
Study design issues: prospective single-blind phase III trial in 20 centres evaluating safety and effectiveness of hydrogel spacer, Patients were randomised 2:1 (by opening envelopes) to have either spacer injection or no injection (control). Patients were blinded to randomisation, allocation concealed. The planning methodology from baseline and post procedural treatment plans was same. The primary effectiveness endpoint was the proportion of patients achieving >25% reduction in rectal volume having at least 70Gy (V70) because of spacer placement. The primary safety endpoint was the proportion of patients having grade 1 or greater rectal or procedural adverse events in the first 6 months. All IG-IMRT planning documentation and CT and MRI scans were assessed by a blinded independent laboratory. All adverse events were recorded and attributed by an independent clinical events committee blinded to treatment randomisation. Rectal and urinary adverse events attributed to radiation were included for toxicity analysis according to National Cancer Institute's Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (CTCAE) version 4 grading system. Quality of life (QoL) assessed using the Expanded Prostate Cancer Index Composite (EPIC) health related QoL questionnaire at different follow-up visits. Declines in QoL assessed using predetermined 5- and 10‑point thresholds for minimal clinically detectable QoL changes.
Study population issues: There were no differences between the groups with regard to baseline tumour characteristics, demographics and medical morbidities.
Key efficacy findings
Number of patients analysed:220 (148 with spacer versus 72 without spacer [control])
Spacer placement success in spacer group (defined as hydrogel present in perirectal space): 98.7% (146/148)
Ease of spacer application:
Urologists and oncologists rated spacer application as 'easy' and 'very easy' 98.7% of time.
Perirectal space (distance between the posterior prostate capsule and anterior rectal wall on axial mid-gland T2 weighted MRIs) (Mariados 2015).
Spacer group | Control group | |
Baseline | 1.6±2.2 mm | NR |
Post spacer application | 12.6±3.9 mm | 1.6±2.0 mm |
3 months | 9.0±5.9 mm | NR |
Spacer group (n=148) | Control group (n=72) | p value | ||||
Parameter | rV50 | rV60 | rV70 | rV80 | rV70 | |
% before spacer | 25.7±11.1 | 18.4±7.7 | 12.4±5.4 | 4.6±3.1 | 12.4 | 0.95 |
% after spacer | 12.2±8.7 | 6.8±5.5 | 3.3±3.2 | 0.6±0.9 | 11.7 | <0.0001 |
% of absolute reduction | 13.442 | 11.56 | 9.078 | 3.933 | ||
% of relative reduction | 52.3 | 62.9 | 73.3 | 86.3 | ||
p value | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
Overall 97.3% of spacer patients had a 25% reduction in rV70. Additionally, 100% and 92% of all spacer and control patient plans met all rectal dose constraints respectively.
Spacer application did not increase the dose in neighbouring tissues (mean pre and post application bladder V70 being 11.3% and 11.0%). No differences were found in the values for bladder or bladder wall (p>0.001 for all).
The mean penile bulb dose was significantly reduced in spacer group than in the control group (18.0 Gy versus 22.8 Gy, p=0.036) and doses from V10 to V30.
Acute toxicity (from procedure to 3‑month visit)Mariados 2015 | ||||||
Rectal toxicity scores (%) | Urinary tract toxicity scores (%) | |||||
Grade | Spacer % (n=148) | Control % (n=72) | p value | Spacer % (n=148) | Control % (n=72) | p value |
0 | 73 (108) | 68 (49) | 0.525 | 9.5 (14) | 9.7 (7) | 0.488 |
1 | 23 (34) | 27.8 (20) | 52.7 (78) | 45.8 (33) | ||
>2 | 4.1 (6)* | 4.2 (3)* | 37.8 (56)* | 44.4 (32)* | ||
Late toxicity (between 3 and 15 month visits)Mariados 2015 | ||||||
Grade | Spacer % (n=148) | Control % (n=71) | p value | Spacer % (n=148) | Control % (n=71) | p value |
0 | 98 (145) | 93 966) | 0.044 | 90.5 (134) | 91.5 (65) | 0.622 |
1 | 2 (3)+ | 5.6 (4)+ | 2.7 (4) | 4.2 (3) | ||
>2 | 0 | 1.4 (1)+ | 6.8 (10) | 4.2 (3) | ||
Late toxicity (between 15 months and 3 year visits)Hamstra 2017 | ||||||
Rectal toxicity scores (%) | Urinary tract toxicity scores (%) | |||||
Grade | Spacer % (n=94) | Control % (n=46) | p value | Spacer % (n=94) | Control % (n=46) | p value |
>1 | 2.0 (95% CI 4-20%) | 9.0 (95% CI 1-6%) | 0.28 HR 0.24 (95% CI 0.06-0.97) | 4 (95% CI 2-10%) | 15 (95% CI 8-29%) | 0.046 HR 0.36 (95% CI 0.12 -1.1) |
>2 | 0 | 5.7++ (95% CI 2-17%) | 0.012 | 7 | 7 | 0.7 |
*No grade 3 or 4 toxicity reported within 3 months.
+ late rectal toxicity was seen in 2% of spacer patients (3 grade 1 events: 1 rectal bleeding, 1 rectal urgency, and 1 proctitis) and 7% of control patients (grade 1–3 rectal bleeding, 1 rectal urgency and 1 grade 3 proctitis). There was no rectal toxicity greater than grade 1 in spacer group1. ++ 1 case of grade 2 rectal toxicity in control arm (Hamstra 2017).
Bowel QoL (assessed using EPIC questionnaire)
At 15 months, 11.6% and 21.4% of spacer and control group patients had 10‑point declines in bowel QoL (p=0.087)1. From 6 months onward, bowel QoL consistently favoured the spacer group (p=0.002), with the difference at 3 years (5.8 points; p<0.05) meeting the threshold for a MID (5-7 points). At 3 years, more patients in the control group than in the spacer group had experienced a MID decline in bowel QoL (5-point decline: 41% versus 14%; p=0.002; OR 0.28, 95% CI 0.13-0.63) and even large declines (twice the MID) (10 decline: 21% versus 5%, p=0.02, OR 0.30, 95% CI 0.11-0.83) (Hamstra 2017).
Urinary QoL (assessed using EPIC questionnaire)
At 6 months, 8.8% and 22.2% of spacer and control group patients had 10-point urinary declines (p=0.003). At 12 and 15 months the declines were similar for both groups (Mariados 2015).
The control group had a 3.9-point greater decline in urinary QoL compared with the spacer group at 3 years (p<.05), but the difference did not meet the MID threshold (5-7 points). At 3 years, more patients in the control group than in the spacer group had experienced a MID decline in urinary QoL (6-point decline: 30% vs 17%; p=0.04; OR 0.41, 95% CI 0.18-0.95) and even large declines (twice the MID) (12-point decline: 23% vs 8%; p=0.02; OR 0.31, 95% CI 0.11-0.85) (Hamstra 2017).
Sexual QoL: 41% (88/222) of patients with adequate baseline sexual QoL (EPIC mean, 77 ± 8.3) at 3 years had better sexual function (p=0.03) with a spacer with a smaller difference in sexual bother score (p=0.1), which resulted in a higher EPIC score on the spacer arm (58 ±24.1 versus control 45 ± 24.4) meeting threshold for MID without statistical significance (p=0.07). There were statistically nonsignificant differences favouring spacer for the proportion of patients with MID and 2× MID declines in sexual QoL (with 53% versus 75% having an 11-point decline, p=0.064 and 41% versus 60% with a 22-point decline, p=0.11). At 3 years, more patients potent at baseline and treated with spacer had "erections sufficient for intercourse" (control 37.5% versus spacer 66.7%, p=0.046) as well as statistically higher scores on 7 of 13 items in the sexual domain (all p<0.05) (Hamstra 2018, Karsh 2018).
Multi-domain changes (urinary, sexual and bowel): 46% of patients in the spacer group and 35% in the control group had no clinically detectable changes in any QoL domain at 3 years. 20% of patients in the control group had changes meeting the threshold for MID in all 3 domains compared with only 2.5% in the spacer group. Also, 12.5% of the control group had large changes (2xMID) in all 3 domains at 3 years compared with no patients in the spacer group (Hamstra 2017, 2018).
Spacer absorption (using MRI) at 12 months: confirmed in all, except 2% (3/148) patients exhibiting small water density remnant cysts in unremarkable perirectal tissues (Mariados 2015).
Safety
Spacer group % | Control group % | p value | |
Rates of grade 1 or greater rectal or procedural adverse events at first 6 months | 34.2 | 31.5 | 0.7 |
Acute rectal pain | 2.7 | 11.1 | 0.022 |
No differences in acute rectal or urinary tract toxicities were seen in the first 3 months.
Overall adverse and serious adverse events
Spacer group % | Control group % | p value | |
Adverse events | 96.6 | 100 | NS |
Serious adverse events | 13.4 | 15.1 | NS |
Spacer safety: there were no device related adverse events, rectal perorations, serious bleeding or infections in either group.
Study 2 Miller 2020
Study type | Systematic review and meta-analysis |
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Country | USA, UK, Switzerland and Germany |
Study search details | Inception to September 2019; Databases searched: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, and Embase; no language or date restrictions applied. Supplemental searches were done in the directory of open access journals, Google scholar, and reference lists of included articles and relevant meta-analyses searched. If outcomes were unclear in studies, authors were contacted. |
Study population and number | n=7 studies with 1,011 patients (486 patients who had a perirectal hydrogel spacer injection versus 525 patients who did not receive a spacer [controls] before prostate cancer radiotherapy). (1 randomised clinical trial [RCT] and 6 cohort studies [1 prospective, 4 retrospective and 1 with prospective enrolment in spacer group and retrospective enrolment in no spacer group]) Clinical stages: localised or locally advanced prostate cancer (T1-T3) prostate-specific antigen levels ranged from 5.6 to 10.2 nanograms/ml |
Age and sex | Mean age of 66 to 77 years. |
Study selection criteria | Inclusion criteria: randomised clinical trials or cohort studies of patients who had the perirectal hydrogel spacer versus patients who had no spacer before radiotherapy for localised or locally advanced prostate cancer. Studies using external-beam RT that reported the percentage volume of the rectum receiving at least 70 Gy radiation (v70). Exclusion criteria: review articles, commentaries, letters, studies with no control or active control group, studies with fewer than 10 patients, pre-post dosimetric studies, studies that did not report a pre-specified outcome of this review, duplicate publications and unpublished or grey literature. |
Technique | Intervention: Injection of a prostate-rectum spacer (absorbable polyethylene glycol hydrogel‑SpaceOAR system) between the Denonvilliers fascia and anterior rectal wall before radiotherapy. Radiotherapy protocols: EBRT with a total therapeutic dose ranging from 76 to 81 Gy (5 studies), BT with or without EBRT (1 study), or combination therapy (1 study). |
Follow up | Median 26 months (range, 3 to 63 months). |
Conflict of interest/source of funding | The study was funded by Boston Scientific and they were involved in design and interpretation of data, review and approval of manuscript. Authors served as consultants, and either received personal fees, grants, honoraria, travel expenses, and non-financial support from Boston scientific and other companies. |
Analysis
Follow-up issues: follow up varied across studies and data was analysed as reported by individual studies. Some attrition bias was reported at late follow up in included studies.
Study design issues: systematic review protocol was registered and was done according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) reporting guidelines. Comprehensive literature search was done, studies were screened and data extracted into a predesigned form, any disagreements were resolved by discussion. Multiple studies with overlapping patients were carefully assessed and included. Small numbers of nRCTs were included and were associated with risks of bias. A random-effects meta-analysis model was used for analysis of outcomes (rectal irradiation, rectal toxic effects, and bowel-related QoL). Heterogeneity was noted among study designs, patient characteristics, and radiotherapy protocols.
Study population issues: patient characteristics and risk categories varied between studies.
Other issues: One included study compared outcomes with the hydrogel spacer, biodegradable balloon, and no spacer treatment, but results of the balloon group were excluded from the analysis by the authors. Authors state that no studies of hydrogel spacer placement in patients receiving SBRT were eligible for inclusion in this review.
Key efficacy findings
Number of patients analysed: 1,011 patients (486 patients who had a perirectal hydrogel spacer injection versus 525 patients who did not receive a spacer [controls])
Procedural outcomes
Spacer placement success in spacer group (5 studies): the hydrogel spacer was successfully placed in 97.0% (95% CI, 94.4%-98.8%) of cases and failure reported in 3% cases. Causes of delivery failure were unsuccessful hydrodissection (n=5), inadvertent needle entry into the rectal lumen with no clinical sequelae (n=3), and unspecified cause (n=1).
Perirectal separation distance (distance between the posterior prostate capsule and anterior rectal wall on axial mid-gland T2 weighted MRIs): the weighted mean perirectal separation distance after hydrogel spacer placement was 11.2 mm (95% CI, 10.1-12.3 mm [5 studies]).
Rectal irradiation with perirectal hydrogel spacer versus without spacer (control)
In a pooled analysis of 6 studies, patients who had the perirectal hydrogel spacer before EBRT had 66% less v70 rectal irradiation compared with controls- patients who did not receive perirectal hydrogel spacer (3,5% versus 10.4%; MD -6.5%; 95% CI -10.5% to 2.5%; I2=97%; p=0.001).
Rectal toxicity
Grade 2 or higher rectal toxic effects with versus without rectal hydrogel spacer
Early grade ≥2: In a pooled analysis of 6 studies, the risk of early (≤3 months) grade 2 or higher rectal toxic effects was comparable and not statistically different between the hydrogel spacer group and control groups (4.5% versus 4.1%; RR, 0.82; 95% CI, 0.52-1.28; I2=0%; p=0.38).
Late grade ≥2: In a pooled analysis of 4 studies, at late follow up (median, 38 months; range, 28-60 months), the risk of grade 2 or higher rectal toxic effects was 77% lower in the hydrogel spacer group compared to controls (1.5% versus 5.7%; RR, 0.23; 95% CI, 0.06-0.99; I2=24%; p=0.05).
Grade ≥1 rectal toxicity with versus without perirectal hydrogel spacer
Early grade ≥1: In a pooled analysis of 7 studies, the risk of early (≤3 months) grade 1 or higher rectal toxicity in patients treated with the hydrogel spacer was significantly lower (20.5% versus 29.5%; RR, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.58-0.91; I2= 0%; p=0.005).
Late grade ≥1: In a pooled analysis of 5 studies, late grade ≥1 rectal toxicity (median, 40 months; range, 28-60 months) was significantly lower in the hydrogel spacer group (4.8% versus 16.2%; RR, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.22-0.65; I2= 0%; p < 0.001).
Bowel quality of life (QoL) with versus without perirectal hydrogel spacer
Changes in early bowel-related QoL: in a pooled analysis of 2 studies, change in early bowel quality of life (≤3 months) (on EPIC questionnaire reported on a 0 to 100 scale where higher values indicate better QoL) was not statistically different between the groups (MD, 0.2; 95% CI, –3.1 to 3.4; I2=21%; p=0.92).
Change in late bowel-related QoL: in a pooled analysis of 2 studies, change in bowel-related QoL was greater in the hydrogel spacer group in late follow up (median, 48 months; range, 36-60 months) and exceeded the threshold for a minimal clinically importance difference (MD, 5.4; 95% CI, 2.8-8.0; I2=0%; p< 0.001). A 4-point change from baseline was considered a minimal clinically important difference.
Key safety findings
Procedural complications (defined as inability to inject the hydrogel spacer into the perirectal space or any complication, regardless of severity, occurring during the procedure).
Mariados 2015 | mild and transient complications (did not delay radiotherapy) | 10% |
Whalley 2016 | Inadvertent injection into the rectal lumen (without adverse sequalae) | 3% (1/30) |
Pinkawa 2017, Taggar 2018 | None | 0 |
The frequency of procedural complications was uncommon but reported inconsistently; it was not reported in 3 studies (Chao 2019, te Velde 2019, Wolf 2015).
Study 3 Norwegian Institute of Public Health (NIPHNO) EUnetHTA 2020
Study type | HTA |
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Country | Europe |
Study search details | 2010 to 2019; Databases searched for existing evidence syntheses (systematic reviews, HTAs) and primary studies include MEDLINE, AMED, Embase, Epistemonikos, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Also searched trial registry records at ClinicalTrials.gov and WHO ICTRP, Devices@FDA, the American Society of Clinical Oncology conference abstracts, and the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group clinical trials protocols. Considered information from clinical practice guidelines, information from a general literature search and input from clinical experts, and manufacturers. No language, design, publication restrictions applied. |
Study population and number | n=2 prospective comparative studies including 298 patients with T1 and T2 stage localised prostate cancer) (1 RCT [SpaceOAR plus radiotherapy versus radiotherapy alone]) including 3 companion studies from the same clinical trial (NCT01538628) and 1 non-randomised control trial (nRCT; hydrogel plus radiotherapy, balloon plus radiotherapy and radiotherapy alone) |
Age | RCT: spacer group 66.4 years; control group: 67.7 years nRCT: not reported |
Study selection criteria | Inclusion criteria: adults (>18yrs) who had prostate cancer (both localised and metastatic undergoing curative treatment); studies on biodegradable rectal spacers for prostate cancer radiotherapy compared with current pathway of care (radiotherapy); RCTs and prospective nRCTs or observational studies with a control group, prospective studies or registry studies, (for effectiveness), including prospective registry-based data (for safety); reporting effectiveness and safety outcomes, in all languages. Exclusion criteria: study designs other than those specified in inclusion criteria, studies with no outcome of interest, wrong population, no data on patients with spacers, or no full text. |
Technique | Intervention: biodegradable rectal spacers for prostate cancer radiotherapy. 2 different spacers used: transperineal hydrogel (SpaceOAR) or balloon (BioProtect) plus radiotherapy versus radiotherapy alone (EBRT) Radiotherapy protocols: RCT (n=222) IG-IMRT dose of 79.2 Gy at 1.8 Gy fractions, delivered to ≥98% of the planning target volume (PTV) and 100% of the clinical target volume, with the clinical target volume maximum of ≤110% of the prescription dose. nRCT: IMRT total dose of 75.85 Gy in daily fractional doses of 1.85 Gy prescribed to the 95% isodose using multi-segmental 7-field and shoot IMRT. |
Follow up | RCT: 3,6,12,15 (Mariados 2015) and 36 months (Hamstra 2017). nRCT: up to 6 months (Wolf 2015) |
Conflict of interest/source of funding | All authors, and stakeholders involved in the production of this assessment have declared they have no conflicts of interest according to the EUnetHTA declaration of interest (DOI) form. |
Analysis
Follow-up issues: follow up varied across both studies and data was analysed as reported by individual studies. High attrition (>20%) was reported during long term follow up in the RCT.
Study design issues: Comprehensive systematic literature search was done, 2 reviewers screened studies and data extracted into a predesigned form, any disagreements were resolved by discussion. Quality of studies was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool for RCT and the ROBINS-I tool (risk of bias in nRCTs– of Interventions) for nRCTs. Studies included were considered to be at high risk of bias (in the RCT methods were not well described, patients unblinded, selective reporting, and high attrition and in the nRCT selection bias, confounding, short follow up were reported). Same radiotherapy protocol was used in both studies. GRADE approach was used to rate the evidence for each outcome through a structured process.
MID for the EPIC Short Form was used to identify MID standards for the outcomes and interpret the magnitude of effect sizes. Effect sizes were calculated for urinary and rectal toxicity (early and late) and QoL and for other outcomes, data was presented as reported in the individual studies. Multiple studies with overlapping patients were carefully assessed and included the study with final results. The 2 studies used the CTCAE grading system for grading adverse events.
Study population issues: patient characteristics were not well defined in both studies. RCT included patients at clinical stage T1 and T2, individuals in the control group had severe co-morbidities and compulsory anticoagulation.
Other issues: 15 trial registry records including biodegradable rectum spacers at different stages (completed, ongoing, recruiting) were identified by the authors but not were considered in this analysis. There were no comparative studies on hyaluronic acid.
Key efficacy findings
Number of patients analysed: 298 patients
Rectal and urinary toxicity (n=2 studies assessed according to the CTCAE)
Outcomes | No of patients | Relative effect (95% CI) | Absolute effect (95% CI) | GRADE Certainty of evidence | Comments | |
Spacer+ radiotherapy | Radiotherapy alone | |||||
RCT (Mariados 2015, Hamstra 2017) | ||||||
Rectal toxicity | N=148 Spacer | N=71 no spacer | ||||
Acute (grade 1)-3 months | 34 | 20 | RR 0.77 (0.50 to 1.19), p=0.42 | 94 fewer per 1000 (from 204 fewer to 78 more) | Low 2-3 | |
Acute (grade ≥2) – 3 months | 6* | 3** | RR 0.91 (0.23 to 3.5), p=0.89 | 6 fewer per 1000 (from 47 fewer to 152 more) | *no grade 3 or 4 toxicity reported **1 grade 3 case, no grade 4 reported | |
Late (grade 1) – 15 months | 3 | 4 | RR 0.34 (0.08 to 1.48), p=0.16 | 40 fewer per 1000 (from 56 fewer to 29 more) | ||
Late (grade≥2)4 – 15 months | 0 | 2* | RR 0.15 (0.01 to 3.71), p=0.25 | 13 fewer per 1000 (from 15 fewer to 41 more) | 1 grade 3 case, no grade 4 reported | |
Cumulative (acute and late, grade 1) – median 3 years | 2 | 4 | HR 0.24, 95% CI 0.06 to 0.97, p<0.03 | Not able to calculate | Very low 2,3,5 | Loss to follow up 37% (spacer+RT n=54 and RT alone n=25) |
Cumulative (acute and late, grade ≥2) – median 3 years | 0 | 3 | HR not available | Not able to calculate | ||
nRCT (Wolf 2015) | ||||||
Acute rectal toxicity (grade 1) – 3 months | 5 | 2 | RR 1.58 (0.34 to 7.60), p=0.55 | 61 more per 1000 (from 69 fewer to 695 more) | Very low | hydrogel versus RT – no grade 2-3 toxicity |
5 | RR 1.64 (0.35 to 7.60), p=0.52 | 67 more per 1000 (from 68 fewer to 695 more) | Very Low3,6 | Balloon versus RT – no grade 2-3 toxicity |
No of patients | Relative effect (95% CI) | Absolute effect (95% CI) | GRADE | Comments | ||
Spacer+ radiotherapy | Radiotherapy alone | |||||
RCT (Mariados 2015, Hamstra 2017) | ||||||
Urinary toxicity | N=148 | N=71 | ||||
Acute (grade 1)-3 months | 78 | 33 | RR 1.03 (0.87 to 1.21), p=0.74 | 25 more per 1000 (from 107 fewer to 173 more) | Low 2-3 | |
Acute (grade ≥2) – 3 months | 56 | 32 | RR 0.97 (0.81 to 1.18), p=0.79 | 25 fewer per 1000 (from 156 fewer to 148 more) | *no grade 3 or 4 toxicity reported | |
Late (grade 1) – 15 months | 4 | 3 | RR 0.65 (0.15 to 2.85), p=0.57 | 15 fewer per 1000 (from 36 fewer to 75 more) | ||
Late (grade ≥2) – 15 months | 10* | 3* | RR 1.57 (0.44 to 5.53), p=0.47 | 25 more per 1000 (from 23 fewer to 196 more) | *no grade 3 or 4 toxicity reported | |
Cumulative (acute and late, grade 1) – median 3 years | 4 | 7 | HR 0.36 (0.12 to 1.1), p=0.046 | Not able to calculate | Very low 2,3,5 | Loss to follow up 37% (spacer+RT n=54 and RT alone n=25) |
Cumulative (acute and late, grade ≥2) – median 3 years | NR | NR | HR 1.22 (0.40 to 3.72), p=0.7 | Not able to calculate | ||
Genitourinary toxicity (Wolf 2015) | ||||||
n=30 hydrogel, n=29 balloon spacer) | n=19 radiotherapy alone | |||||
Acute – grade 2 | 11 | 5 | RR 1.39 (0.57 to 3.38), p=0.46 | 103 more per 1000 (from 113 fewer to 626 more) | Very Low 3,6 | hydrogel or Balloon versus RT – no grade 3 toxicity |
6 | 6 RR 0.78 (0.27 to 2.12), p=0.64 | 58 fewer per 1000 (from 192 to 295 more) |
Outcomes | No of patients | Relative effect (95% CI) | Absolute effect (95% CI) | GRADE | Comments | |
Spacer+ radiotherapy | Radiotherapy | |||||
RCT (Mariados 2015, Hamstra 2017) | ||||||
Bowel QoL assessed with EPIC 0-100 – greater values are better | ||||||
Summary Score: results suggest SpaceOAR +RT may improve bowel QoL (p=0.002) over the entire follow-up period (1 study, 220 participants; very low certainty of evidence) but the evidence is uncertain. | ||||||
Minimal Clinical Difference – 5-point decline | ||||||
Bowel QoL 3 months | 49% (73/148) | 46%(32/71) | RD 0.05, 95% CI -0.09 to 0.19 | 5 more people in intervention reported 5-point decline | Low 2,3 | |
Bowel QoL 15 months | 24%(36/148) | 34% (24/71) | RD -0.09, 95% CI -0.22 to 0.04 | 9 less people in intervention reported 5-point decline | ||
Bowel QoL 36 months | 14% (13/94) | 41% (19/46) | OR 0.28, 95% CI 0.13 to 0.63* | 27% less patients in the intervention experiencing 5-point decline | Very low 2, 3, 5 | |
Minimal Clinical Difference X2 – 10 point decline | ||||||
Bowel QoL 3 months | 34% (50/148) | 32% (23/71) | RD 0.02, 95% CI -0.11 to 0.15 | 2 more people in the intervention reported 10-point decline | Low | |
Bowel QoL 15 months | 11%(17/148) | 21% (15/71) | RD -0.09, 95% CI -0.20 to 0.01 | 10 fewer people in the intervention reported a 10-point decline | Low 2,3 | |
Bowel QoL 36 months | 5% (5/94) | 16% (7/46) | OR 0.30, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.83 | 16% fewer patients in the intervention reported 10-point decline | Very low 2,3,5 | |
Urinary QoL - assessed with EPIC 0-100 – greater values are better | ||||||
Summary Score: Results suggest SpaceOAR may have little to no effect on urinary QoL (p=.13) over the study follow-up period (1 study, 220 participants; very low certainty of evidence); the evidence is very uncertain. | ||||||
Minimal Clinical Difference – 6-point decline | ||||||
Urinary QoL 3 months | 65%(97/148) | 60% (42/71) | RD 0.07, 95% CI -0.07 to 0.21 | 7 more people in the intervention reported 6 point decline | Low 2,3 | |
Urinary QoL 15 months | 22% (32/148) | 21% (15/71) | RD 0.01, 95% CI -0.11 to 0.12 | There was no difference in the number of patients reporting 6 point decline | ||
Urinary QoL 36 months | 30% (28/94) | 17% (8/46) | OR 0.41, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.95 | 13% fewer participants in the intervention reported 6 point decline | Very low 2,3,5 | |
Minimal Clinical Difference X2 – 10-point decline | ||||||
Urinary QoL 3 months | 47% (70/148) | 49% (34/71) | RD 0.00, 95% CI -0.14 to 0.14* | There was no difference in the number of patients reporting 12-point decline | ||
Urinary QoL 15 months | 9% (14/148) | 12% (9/71) | RD -0.03, 95% CI -0.12 to 0.06 | 3 fewer patients in the intervention reported 12-point decline | ||
Urinary QoL 36 months | 23% (22/94) | 8% (4/46) | OR 0.31, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.85* | 15% fewer participants in the intervention reported 12-point decline | ||
Sexual QoL – assessed with EPIC 0-100 – greater values are better | ||||||
Summary Score: results suggest SpaceOAR may have little to no effect on sexual QoL (p=0.6) over the entire study period (1 study, 140 participants; very low certainty of evidence), but the evidence is very uncertain. | ||||||
36 months | 94 | 46 | Not estimable | Sexual composite over time p=0.59 | Very low 2,3,5 |
outcomes | No of patients | Relative effect (95% CI) | Absolute effect (95% CI) | GRADE | Comments | |
Spacer+ radiotherapy | Radiotherapy | |||||
RCT (Mariados 2015, Hamstra 2017) | ||||||
rV70 Mean ± SD | N=148 | N=71 | - | - | Low 2,3 | 97%intervention patients reached ≧25% reduction in rV70 |
nRCT (Wolf 2015) | ||||||
Isodose | Hydrogel 30 Balloon 29 | radiotherapy alone 19 | 95% isodose | 38% and 63% less | g-gel, b-balloon c control | |
10.9 cm2-g 17.6 cm2-c 6.6 cm2-b | 24% and 42% less 10% and 22% less | Very low 2,3,5 | ||||
85% isodose 18.3 cm2-g 24.1 cm2-c 13.2 cm2-b 60% isodose 34.4 cm2-g 38.3 cm2-c 29.7 cm2-b | ||||||
Distance between rectum and prostate – baseline, post-insertion, 3 months RCT (Mariados 2015, Hamstra 2017) | ||||||
Mean perirectal distance (mm) | 149 | - | Not estimable | Not estimable | Low 2,3 | 1.6±2.2 mm, baseline 12.6±3.9 mm, after insertion 9±5.9 mm at 3 months |
PSA relapse – baseline, 12 and 15 months | ||||||
Nanograms/ml – 12 months and 15 months | 148 | 71 | Not estimable | Not estimable | Low 2,3 | Values only presented as means (no SD available), no data for 36 months available. |
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence
High quality: Further research is very unlikely to change our confidence in the estimate of effect.
Moderate quality: Further research is likely to have an important impact on our confidence in the estimate of effect and may change the estimate.
Low quality: Further research is very likely to have an important impact on our confidence in the estimate of effect and is likely to change the estimate.
Very low quality: We are very uncertain about the estimate.
1 Assessed according to CTCAE v4
2 Downgraded one level due to limitations in design (high risk of bias) (e.g. blinding, selective reporting)
3 Downgraded one level due to imprecision (one or 2 small studies)
4 Grade 2 is presented in Mariados' publication as '>2' and in Hamstra's as '≥2'; we have assumed this is ≥2 and reported as such
5 Downgraded one level due to limitations in design (large loss to follow up without imputations) 6 Downgraded one level due to limitations in design (high risk of bias) (e.g. bias due to confounding, selection of participants, bias of measurement of outcome)
Key safety findings
Outcomes | No of patients | Relative effect (95% CI) | Absolute effect (95% CI) | GRADE | Comments | |
Spacer+ radiotherapy | Radiotherapy alone | |||||
1 RCT (Mariados 2015 and 5 companion studies) and 1 nRCT (Wolf 2015) | ||||||
207 | 91 | There was no (device) death related to adverse events reported in these studies | 1 RCT and 1 nRCT | |||
Adverse events, grades 3-4 | 207 | 91 | There was no (device) grade 3-4 related to adverse events reported in these studies | |||
Adverse events grades 1-2 1 | 148 | 71 | Procedural adverse events no unanticipated SpaceOAR related adverse events. 10% of the spacer patients had mild transient procedural adverse events (perineal discomfort and others) n=10 events requiring no medication* grade 2 events treated with medication included mild lower urinary tract symptoms and hypotension, and moderate perineal pain. no implant infections, rectal wall ulcerations or other more serious complications. SpaceOAR Hydrogel procedural rectal wall infiltration in 6% (n=9). 2/149 spacer patients had no SpaceOAR Hydrogel present after application: hydrogel injected beyond the prostate in 1 patient, no hydrogel injected in the other due to inadvertent needle penetration of the rectal wall requiring study-mandated termination of the procedure. | Low 2,3 | The information reported in the RCT and companions studies: Mariados 2015, Pieczonka 2015, Karsh and Fisher Valuck 2017 |
*Haematospermia, anorectal pressure, haematuria, tight pain, discomfort while sitting, perineal pain, rectal pain, rectal bleeding (attributed to preoperative enema), constipation and flatulence (1 each).
Safety from other previous papers found by authors
Hydrogel spacer related adverse events:
A review of procedure related adverse events in the MAUDE database from January 2015 to March 2019 suggests that there were 22 unique reports discussing 25 patient cases, with an increasing number of reports each year up to 2018. Authors mentioned reported complications include acute pulmonary embolism, severe anaphylaxis, prostatic abscess and sepsis, purulent perineal drainage, rectal wall erosion, and recto-urethral fistula (see study 5 for further details). Authors state that a recent letter in response to this study suggests that 'the increase in the number of medical device reports in MAUDE over time is normal and proportionate to device usage and the rate of reports has remained relatively constant over time, ranging from 0.3 to 0.6 per 1000 SpaceOAR cases performed' (Babayan 2020).
A rectal ulcer, 1 cm in diameter (causing frequent rectal bleeding, mucus discharge and bowel movements) was reported in a case report of 1 patient 2 months after hydrogel injection. This had resolved without further intervention by 3 months. Digital rectal examination at 6 months revealed a healed ulcer, with only a non-tender slit in the anterior rectal wall. At subsequent examinations over 3 years, there was no recurrence of bowel symptoms (Teh 2014).
Inadvertent rectal wall injection (with hydrogel) resulting in focal rectal mucosal necrosis and bladder perforation was reported after the procedure in 1 patient in a case series of 52 patients. This resolved with no sequelae (Uhl 2014).
Infections (bacterial peritonitis in 2 patients and bacterial epididymitis in 1 patient) were reported in 3% (3/100) of patients injected with a hydrogel spacer in a retrospective comparative case series of 200 patients. The bacterial peritonitis occurred after prostate biopsies. All 3 infections resolved with antibiotic therapy. No infections were reported in the 100 patients treated with high dose rate brachytherapy without hydrogel (Storm 2014).
Balloon spacer related adverse events: a case series of 27 patients (Gez 2013) reported the following adverse events during balloon insertion and radiotherapy: penile bleeding and acute urinary retention (needed catheterisation, which resolved within a few hours) during balloon insertion, dysuria and nocturia (grade 1-2). Other events reported during radiotherapy in the same case series included diarrhoea, mild proctitis, and blood in the faeces, constipation, erectile dysfunction, itching, fatigue and decreased urine flow.
Study 4 Armstrong N 2021
Study type | Systematic review |
---|---|
Country | UK, USA and Germany |
Study search details | Search period: inception to May 2020; databases searched: MEDLINE, Embase, PubMed, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR), Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE), Health Technology Assessment Database (HTA), KSR Evidence, Econlit (EBSCO), and NHS EED (CRD). HTA agency websites, clinical trials registers, conference abstracts databases and reference lists of included articles were also searched. No restrictions on language or publication status were applied. |
Study population and number | 19 studies (3,622 patients who had a perirectal hydrogel spacer versus patients who did not receive a spacer [controls] before prostate cancer radiotherapy). 1 RCT (10 references), 18 comparative nRCTs. |
Age | patients between 65 to 75 years |
Study selection criteria | Inclusion criteria: RCTs and nRCTs with patients receiving radiotherapy (all types) for localised or locally advanced prostate cancer with or without rectal hydrogel spacer; reporting a number of outcomes including radiation dose, toxicity and QoL. |
Technique | Intervention: Injection of a prostate-rectum spacer (absorbable polyethylene glycol hydrogel‑SpaceOAR system) between the Denonvilliers fascia and anterior rectal wall before RT. Comparator (control):no spacer Radiotherapy protocols: different RT modalities used. 1. EBRT- IG-IMRT- 1 RCT 2. EBRT, BT and combinations thereof (in 18 comparative nRCTs):
|
Follow up | Varied across studies |
Conflict of interest/source of funding | 4 authors worked for a company which received funding for the project from Boston Scientific, few authors are employed by Boston Scientific, some received honoraria for advisory boards, travel expenses to medical meetings and 1 served as a consultant for different companies. |
Analysis
Follow-up issues: adequate follow up in most studies.
Study design issues: systematic review protocol was registered and was done according to the PRISMA reporting guidelines, the Cochrane Handbook and the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination. Comprehensive literature search was done, 2 reviewers selected studies, extracted data and quality assessed the studies using Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool for RCT and Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist for cohort studies. The included studies were mainly non-RCT of low quality and in many studies patients were recruited to either the intervention or comparator at the same time. Treatment in nRCTs is usually allocated based on clinician or patient preference but 3 studies used historical matched controls. Studies with a range of radiotherapy modalities used in clinical practice are included. Dosing is measured in different ways. Because of the heterogeneity of studies a narrative synthesis was done.
Study population issues: patient characteristics and risk categories varied between studies.
Other issues: authors did not find any hypofractionated radiotherapy studies.
Key efficacy findings
Number of patients analysed: 19 studies (3,622 patients)
1 RCT Mariados 2015 (hydrogel spacer versus no spacer)
Measures of dosimetry | With spacer | Without spacer | Absolute reduction | Relative reduction | |
Rectum | V50 | 9.6 | 20.8 | 11.2 | 53.9 |
V60 | 5.3 | 15.4 | 10.1 | 65.6 | |
V70 | 2.3 | 10.5 | 8.2 | 78.0 | |
V80 | 0.1 | 4.0 | 3.9 | 97.3 |
Pre and post hydrogel spacer
Measures of dosimetry | Baseline dose Gy (mean±SD) | Post spacer dose Gy (mean±SD) | % Change in dose from baseline, p value | |
Bladder | V70 | 11.3 | 11 | NR |
Rectum | V50 | 25.7±11.1 | 12.2±8.7 | 52.3, p=<0.0001 |
V60 | 18.4±7.7 | 6.8±5.5 | 62.9, p<0.0001 | |
V70 | 12.4±5.4 | 3.3±3.2 | 73.3, p<0.0001 | |
V80 | 4.6±3.1 | 0.6±0.9 | 86.3, p<0.0001 |
EBRT | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Study, n | Clinical stage, risk status | Measures of dosimetry | With spacer Mean/median | Without spacer Mean/median | P value |
Pinkawa 2017 IMRT (n=167) | T1-T3 Low to high risk | V70 % | 20 | 32 | <0.01 |
V90 % | 4 | 13 | <0.01 | ||
Te Velde 2019 IMRT (n=125) | T1-T3 Low to high risk | V40 % | 25.9 | 33.3 | <0.0001 |
V75% | 2.1 | 7.4 | <0.0001 | ||
V65% | 5.2 | 12.6 | <0.0001 | ||
Whalley 2016 IMRT (n=140) | T1-T3 Intermediate/ high risk | V40 % | 22.9 | 32 | <0.01 |
V65% | 5.3 | 13.5 | <0.01 | ||
Navaratnam 2020 PBT (n=72) | T-1-T3 | V70 % | NR | NR | - |
V75 % | NR | NR | - | ||
Fried 2017 SBRT (n=94) | Low/intermediate risk | D10 Gy | 26.66 | 30.44 | 0.000 |
D50 Gy | 10.9 | 11.4 | 0.47 | ||
BT | |||||
Baghwala 2019 HDR BT (n=36) | Low/intermediate risk | V75 cc | 0.02 | 0.7 | <0.05 |
V90 cc | >92 | NR | <0.05 | ||
HDR BT in combination with EBRT | |||||
Chao 2019 HDR BT+IG-IMRT (n=97) | T1-T3 Intermediate/ high risk | V40% | 4.6 | 10.7 | <0.001 |
V75% | 0 | 0.55 | <0.001 | ||
V80% | 0 | 0.21 | <0.001 | ||
Wu 2018 HDR BT +/- EBRT (n=54) | T-T3 | V40 cc | 8.11 | 9.38 | 0.16 |
V75 | <0.005 | 0.12 | <0.0005 | ||
V80 | <0.005 | 0.01 | 0.007 | ||
V90 | NR | <0.005 | 0.1 | ||
Saigal 2019 HDR BT + EBRT (n=117) | NR | D1 Gy | 35.3 | 54.6 | <0.05 |
D90 | 100.1 | 101.3 | 0.354 | ||
LDR BT in combination with EBRT | |||||
Morita 2020 LDR BT+IMRT (n=300) | T1-T4 Very low to very high | V100 cc | 0.026 | 0.318 | <0.001 |
V150 | 0.001 | 0.025 | <0.001 | ||
Patel 2018 LDR BT + EBRT (n=57) | NR | V50 | 0.53 | .21 | <0.001 |
V100 | 0.0001 | 0.25 | <0.001 | ||
Taggar 2018 LDR BT+EBRT (n=210) | T1-T3 | V100 | 0.01 | 0.07 | 0 |
Liu 2020 LDR BT +/- EBRT (n=81) | Low/intermediate risk | D2 Gy | -25.1 | 5 | <0.0001 |
D0.1 | -65.7 | -1 | <0.0001 |
1 RCT Mariados 2015 (hydrogel spacer versus no spacer)
Type of adverse event | Follow up | With spacer | Without spacer | P value | OR (95% CI) |
Rectal or procedure related adverse events | 6 months | 34.2% | 31.5% | 0.7 | |
Rectal toxicity late | 3 to 15 months | ||||
Grade 1+ | 2.03 (3/148) | 6.94 (5/71) | 0.044 | 0.28 (0.06,1.19) | |
Grade 2+ | 0 | 1.39 (1/71) | NE | ||
1 | 2.03 (3/148) | 5.63 (4/71) | 0.35 90.08, 1.59) | ||
2 | 0 | 0 | NE | ||
3 | 0 | 1.41 (1/71) | |||
4 | 0 | 0 | |||
Grade>1 | 36 months | 2.0% | 9.2% | 0.028 | |
Grade>2 | 36 months | 0 | 5.7% | 0.012 | |
Rectal toxicity acute | 3 months | ||||
Grade 1+ | 27.03 (40/148) | 31.94 (23/72) | 0.525 | 0.79 (0.43,1.46) | |
Grade 2+ | 4.05 (6/148) | 4.17 (3/72) | 0.97 (0.24,4) | ||
1 | 22.97 (34/148) | 27.78 (20/72) | 0.78 (0.41,1.47) | ||
2 | 4.05 (6/148) | 2.78 (2/72) | 1.48 (0.29, 7.52) | ||
3 | 0 | 1.39 (1/72) | NE | ||
4 | 0 | 0 | |||
Urinary toxicity late | 3 to 15 months | ||||
Grade 1+ | 9.46 (14/148) | 8.33 (6/71) | 0.622 | 1.15 (0.42, 3.13) | |
Grade 2+ | 6.76 (10/148) | 4.17 (3/71) | 1.67 (0.44, 6.25) | ||
1 | 2.70 94/148) | 4.23 (3/71) | 0.63 (0.14, 2.89) | ||
2 | 6.76 (10/148) | 4.23 (3/71) | 1.64 90.44, 6.16) | ||
3 | 0 | 0 | NE | ||
4 | 0 | 0 | |||
Urinary toxicity acute | 3 months | ||||
Grade 1+ | 90.54 (134/148) | 90.28 (65/72) | 0.488 | 1.03 (0.4, 2.68) | |
Grade 2+ | 37.84 (56/148) | 44.44 (32/72) | 0.76 (0.43, 1.35) | ||
1 | 52.70 (78/148) | 45.83 (33/72) | 1.32 (0.75, 2.32) | ||
2 | 37.84 (56/148) | 44.44 (32/72) | 0.76 (0.43, 1.35) | ||
3 | 0 | 0 | NE | ||
4 | 0 | 0 |
nRCTs (hydrogel spacer versus no spacer, 7 studies)
Study | Adverse event (Grade) | Follow up (months) | With spacer % (n) | Without spacer % (n) | P value | OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EBRT | ||||||
Te Velde 2019 IMRT (n=125) | Diarrhoea (grade 1) | During radiotherapy | 13.8% (9/65) | 31.7 (19/60) | 0.02 | 0.34 (0.14,0.84) |
3 months | 4.6% | 5% | 1 | 0.92 (0.18,4.72) | ||
36 months | 1.7% | 7.3% | 0.192 | 0.22 (0.03,1.86) | ||
Proctitis (grade 1) | During radiotherapy | 9.2 | 13.3 | 0.6 | 0.66 (0.22,2.03) | |
3 months | 1.5 | 5 | 0.3 | 0.29 (0.03,2.86) | ||
36 months | 1.7 | 3.6 | 0.606 | 0.46 (0.04,4.88) | ||
Proctitis Grade (2) | During radiotherapy | 4.6 | 1.7 | 0.6 | 2.79 (0.28,27.56) | |
3 months | 0 | 0 | 1 | |||
36 months | 0 | 3.6 | 0.227 | |||
Faecal incontinence (grade 1) | During radiotherapy | 3.1 | 3.3 | 1 | 0.94 (0.13,6.87) | |
3 months | 0 | 1.7 | 0.5 | |||
36 months | 0 | 0 | ||||
Haemorrhoids (grade 1) | During radiotherapy | 23.1 | 20 | 0.8 | 1.2 (0.51,2.83) | |
3 months | 3.1 | 11.7 | 0.09 | 0.24 (0.05,1.21) | ||
36 months | 5 | 7.3 | 0.708 | 0.67 (0.15,2.98) | ||
Haemorrhoids (grade 2) | During radiotherapy | 4.6 | 3.3 | 1 | ||
3 months | 0 | 0 | ||||
36 months | 1.7 | 1.8 | 1 | 0.94 (0.06,14.5) | ||
Whalley 2016 IMRT (n=140) | Rectal toxicity late -grade 1 | Median 26-28 months | 16.6 (5/30) | 41.8 (46/110) | 0.04 | 0.28 (0.1,0.78) |
Grade 2 | 3.3 (1/30) | 3.6 (4/110) | NR | 0.91 (0.1,8.49) | ||
Rectal toxicity acute -grade 1 | 43 (13/30) | 50.6 (56/110) | 0.74 (0.33,1.66) | |||
Grade 2 | 0 | 4.5 (5/110) | ||||
Wolf 2015 IMRT (n=78) | Rectal toxicity acute-grade 1 | NR | 16.6 | 9 | NR | |
Genitourinary toxicity- grade 1 | 12.5 | 21 | ||||
Grade 2 | 36.6 | 28.5 | ||||
Any toxicity acute -grade 3 | 0 | 0 | ||||
Navaratnam 2020 PBT (n=72) | Rectal toxicity-any -grade 1 | During radiotherapy | 35.3 (18/51) | 9.5 (2/21) | 0.061 | 5.2 (1.09,24.89) |
Median 8.7 to 10.3 months | 7.7 (3/39) | 0 (0/14) | NR | |||
Grade 2 | During radiotherapy | 2 (1/51) | 0 (0/21) | NR | ||
Median 8.7 to 10.3 months | 0 (0/39) | 7.1 (1/14) | ||||
Zelefsky 2019 SBRT (n=551) | GI toxicity acute (grade 2+) | NR | 1 (269) | 2 (282) | 0.09 | 0.33 (0.07,1.55) |
GI toxicity late (grade 2+) | 1 | 6 | 0.01 | 0.16 (0.05,0.48) | ||
GU toxicity acute (grade 2+) | 9 | 12 | 0.19 | 0.73 (0.42,1.26) | ||
GU toxicity late (grade 2+) | 15 | 32 | <0.001 | 0.38 (0.25,0.57) | ||
HDR BT in combination with EBRT | ||||||
Chao 2019 BT+IG-IMRT (n=97) | GI toxicity acute (grade 2) | 3 months | 0 (0/32) | 1.5 (1/65) | 0.48 | |
Grade1+ | 13.3 | 30.8 | 0.05 | 0.34 (0.11,1.11) | ||
GI toxicity late (grade 1) | 0 | 7.7 | 0.11 | |||
GU toxicity acute (grade 2) | 0 | 1.5 | 0.48 | |||
Grade 1+ | 83.3 | 92.3 | 0.22 | 0.42 (0.11,1.56) | ||
GU toxicity late (grade 3) | 3.3 | 6.2 | 0.57 | 0.52 (0.06,4.82) | ||
Grade 1+ | 46.7 | 43.1 | 0.74 | 1.16 (0.49,2.71) | ||
Grade 2+ | 3.3 | 7.7 | 0.4 | 0.41 (0.05,3.66) | ||
LDR BT alone or in combination with EBRT | ||||||
Taggar 2018 LDR BT/LDR BT+/- EBRT (n=210) | Any rectal GI toxicity | NR | 20.3 (15/74) | 24.3 (33/136) | 0.95 | 0.79 (0.4,1.58) |
Taggar 2018 LDR BT monotherapy | Diarrhoea | 7.7 (2/26) | 15.9 (7/44) | NR | 0.44 (0.08,2.31) | |
Proctitis | 0 (/26) | 0 (/44) | NR | |||
Rectal bleeding | 0 (/26) | 6.8 (/44) | NR | |||
Rectal discomfort | 15.7 (/26) | 0 (/44) | NR | |||
Taggar 2018 LDR BT monotherapy (salvage for recurrent PC) | Diarrhoea | NR | 12.5 (1/11) | 5.3 (1/19) | NR | 2.55 (0.14,45.36) |
Proctitis | 0 | 0 | NR | |||
Rectal bleeding | 0 | 5.3 | NR | |||
Rectal discomfort | 0 | 0 | NR | |||
Taggar 2018 LDR BT+EBRT combination therapy | Diarrhoea | NR | 12.5 (5/42) | 4.1 (3/73) | NR | 3.34 (0.76,14.76) |
Proctitis | 0 | 5.5 | ||||
Rectal bleeding | 5 | 19.2 | 0.22 (0.05,1.03) | |||
Rectal discomfort | 5 | 0 |
1 RCT Mariados 2015 (hydrogel spacer versus no spacer)
MID = minimally important differences in the EPIC summary scores were evaluated according to previously published thresholds: bowel (5 points), urinary (6 points), sexual (11 points), and vitality/hormonal (5 points).
nRCTs (hydrogel spacer versus no spacer, 4 studies)
Study | EPIC outcome | Follow up (months) | With spacer, Mean change from baseline | Without spacer, mean change from baseline | p value |
Patel 2018 EBRT + LDR BT (n=57) | Bowel function score | 3 months | Median: 0.00, IQR: -8.93 to 0.89 | Median: -6.25, IQR: -12.95 to 0 | 0.312 |
6 months | Median: 0.00, IQR: -8.92 to 0 | Median: -3.57, IQR: -9.82 to 0 | 0.650 | ||
Pinkawa 2012 IMRT (n=72) | Urinary function | Last day radiotherapy | -10 | -10 | NR |
2-3 months | -1 | -5 | |||
Urinary bother score | Last day radiotherapy | -17 | -18 | ||
2-3 months | -4 | -6 | |||
Bowel function | Last day radiotherapy | -15 | -14 | ||
2-3 months | -3 | -3 | |||
Bowel bother score | Last day radiotherapy | -16 | -17 | ||
2-3 months | -2 | -6 | |||
Sexual function | Last day radiotherapy | -15 | -10 | ||
2-3 months | -5 | -9 | |||
Sexual bother score | Last day radiotherapy | -20 | -18 | ||
2-3 months | -11 | -15 | |||
Hormonal function | Last day radiotherapy | -3 | -6 | ||
2-3 months | -1 | -2 | |||
Hormonal bother score | Last day radiotherapy | -3 | -2 | ||
2-3 months | -2 | -1 | |||
Pinkawa 2016 IMRT (n=202) | Bowel bother score | Last day radiotherapy | -14 | -18 | NR |
2 months | -3 | -6 | |||
17 months | 0 | -7 | |||
Sexual bother score | Last day radiotherapy | -6 | -9 | ||
2 months | -12 | -19 | |||
17 months | -12 | -17 | |||
Urinary bother score | Last day radiotherapy | -18 | -21 | ||
2 months | -14 | -17 | |||
17 months | 1 | 2 | |||
Pinkawa 2017 IMRT (n=167) | Urinary function | End of radiotherapy | -10 | -13 | NR |
2 months | -2 | -4 | |||
>12 months | 1 | - | |||
Bowel function | End of radiotherapy | -11 | -14 | NR | |
2 months | -4 | -5 | |||
>12 months | 0 | -5 | <0.01 | ||
Sexual function | End of radiotherapy | -12 | -10 | NR | |
2 months | -6 | -8 | |||
>12 months | -6 | - | |||
Hormone function | End of radiotherapy | -5 | -7 | NR | |
2 months | -3 | -4 | |||
>12 months | 2 | - | |||
Bowel bother score | 18 months | -1 | -7 | 0.13 | |
60 months | -1 | -6 | 0.99 | ||
Sexual bother score | 18 months | -13 | -18 | 0.28 | |
60 months | -21 | -28 | 0.77 | ||
Urinary bother score | 18 months | 2 | 3 | 0.49 | |
60 months | 0 | 3 | 0.22 |
There were no studies reporting QoL in EBRT+ HDR BT, BT monotherapy or hypofractionated EBRT.
Study 5 Vaggers S 2021
Study type | Systematic review |
---|---|
Country | UK |
Study search details | Search period: January 2013 to December 2019; databases searched: MEDLINE, Embase, PubMed, CINAHL, and Cochrane library Google scholar, and reference lists of included articles were also searched. |
Study population and number | 13 studies: (9 retrospective case series and 4 case reports of less than 10 patients) n=1208 patients (671 patients who had a perirectal hydrogel spacer injection versus 537 patients who did not receive a spacer [controls] before prostate cancer brachytherapy). |
Age | Not reported |
Study selection criteria | Inclusion criteria: English-language articles, randomised and non-randomised studies of patients with localised or locally advanced prostate cancer receiving brachytherapy with or without PEG hydrogel spacer (salvage and primary treatment); reporting a number of outcomes including radiation dose, prostate-rectum separation, toxicity and technique for hydrogel insertion. Studies of more than 10 patients evaluated for efficacy and less than 10 patients reviewed for only procedure related complications. Exclusion criteria: case reports, review articles and editorials, non-English-language studies, animal and laboratory studies. |
Technique | Intervention: under ultrasound guidance a needle is inserted into perineum. Hydrodissection of the potential space is done first and then a prostate-rectum spacer (absorbable polyethylene glycol hydrogel) is injected posterior to the Denonvilliers fascia and anterior to the rectal wall at the level between mid-gland and apex of the prostate (4 studies used DuraSeal off label and 5 used SpaceOAR since 2017). Comparator (control):no hydrogel spacer(in 6 studies) Radiotherapy protocols: LDR or HDR BT alone or in combination with EBRT
All LDR or HDR BT start with seed insertion followed by spacer insertion and subsequent IMRT. |
Follow up | Varied across studies (range 6 to 60 months) |
Conflict of interest/source of funding | Authors state that there is no potential conflict of interest. |
Analysis
Follow-up issues: adequate follow up in some studies, 3 studies did not report follow up period.
Study design issues: systematic review protocol was registered and was done according to the PRISMA reporting guidelines and the Cochrane methodology. Comprehensive literature search was done, 2 reviewers selected studies, extracted data but quality assessment of studies was not done. The included studies were mainly retrospective nRCTs of low quality and only 4 studies compared with controls. Studies were heterogenous both in treatment method and type of spacer used therefore a narrative synthesis was done. Genitourinary complications were not analysed by authors. 2 papers included in this study reported on the same patient group (Chao 2019).
Study population issues: patient characteristics and risk categories varied between studies.
Key efficacy findings
Number of patients analysed: 13 studies (9 case series and 4 case reports or case series of less than 10 patients)
Study details | Mean follow up/scoring system | Mean prostate-rectum separation (mm) | Rectal dosimetric reduction/percentage dose reduction^ | Acute GI toxicity (spacer versus no spacer) | Late GI toxicity (spacer versus no spacer) | Failure rate |
Mahal 2014 Salvage LDR BT; prior pelvic irradiation (n=11) DuraSeal spacer | 15.7 months/ EPIC questionnaire | 10.9 in patients with prior BT 7.7 in patients with prior EBRT | Median V75% (cc): 0.07 | Grade 1: 0% Grade 2: 9% (n=1 fistula) Grade >3: 0 | Grade 1 or 2: 36% (4/11) Grade 3 or 4: 9% (n=1 patient developed prostatorectal fistula requiring a diverting colostomy and an interposition rotational gracilis muscle flap) 16 months: 26% (3/11) bowel QoL change | 27.2% |
Heikkila 2014 LDR BT (n=10) DuraSeal spacer | - | 10 | Rectal D2 cc 64±13 Gy with gel versus 95±13 Gy without gel (p=0.005)/ (32.6%) | 1 patient reported a sensation of pressure in the rectum. 1 patient felt a sudden need for defecation. | - | 0% |
Wu 2017 HDR BT: HDR BT+EBRT Salvage HDR BT (n=18 with spacer and 36 without spacer) (SpaceOAR) | - | - | Median V75% (cc): <0.005 versus 0.12 (p≤0.0005)/ (100%) | 1 patient developed a rectal abscess. | - | 0% |
Chao 2019 HDR BT+IMRT (n=32 with spacer and 65 without spacer) (SpaceOAR) | 60 months NCICTCAE v4.0 | 10 | Median V75% (cc) 0.0 versus 0.45 (p≤0.001)/ (100%) | Grade 1 12.5% versus 30.8% (p=0.05) | Grade 1: 0% versus 7.7% (p=0.11) | - |
Chao 2019 HDR BT+IMRT or VMAT (n=30 with spacer and 65 without spacer) (SpaceOAR) | 58 months NCICTCAE v4.0 | - | Median V75% (cc) 0.0 versus 0.45 (p≤0.001)/ (100%) | Grade 1 13.3% versus 30.8% (p=0.05) Grade 2 0% versus 1.5% (p=0.48) | Grade 1: 0% versus 7.7% (p=0.11) | - |
Storm 2014 HDR BT +IMRT (n=100 with spacer and 100 without spacer) (DuraSeal) | 8.7 months | 12 | Rectal D2 cc 47±9% versus 60±8% (p<0.001)/ (21.6%) | - | - | 0% |
Yeh 2016 HDR BT +IMRT (n=326) (DuraSeal) | 16 months NCICTCAE v4.0 | 16 | maximum dose to rectum 78% versus 95% (SD=11.9%)/ (17.3%) | Grade 1: 37.4% Grade 2: 2.8% Most commonly diarrhoea | Grade 1:12.7% Grade 2: 1.4% Grade 3: 0.7% 1 case of severe proctitis 1 case of fistula and necrotising fasciitis requiring a diverting colostomy. | - |
Taggar 2017 LDR BT. LDR BT+EBRT Salvage LDR BT (74 with spacer 136 without spacer) (SpaceOAR) | 6 months RTOG | 11.2 | Rectal D2 cc 20.47% versus 43.16% (p=0.000)/ (52.6%) | Grade 1 or 2 20.3% (n=15) versus 24.3% (n=33) (p= 0.95) Diarrhoea: LDR BT alone 7.7% versus 15.9% LDR BT +EBRT 12.5% versus 4.1% Salvage 12.5% versus 5.3% Proctitis: LDR BT alone 0% versus 0%, LDR BT+EBRT 0% versus 5.5% Salvage 0% versus 0% Rectal discomfort -8% (n=7) versus 0 Rectal bleeding 5% (n=2) versus 21.3% (n=18). No grade 3 or 4 complications | - | 6.8% (2 aborted due to unsuccessful hydro dissections) |
Morita 2019 LDR BT; LDR BT+EBRT (100 with spacer 200 without spacer) (SpaceOAR) | - | 11.6 | Median V100% 0.026±0.14 versus 0.318+/1 0.34 (p≤0.001)/ (91.8%) | - | - | 4% (1 aborted due to operator inexperience and premature coagulation of the solution during injection) |
^spacer versus non-spacer.
Key safety findings
Study | N | Complications | n |
Procedure related complications | |||
Teh 2014 | 1 spaceOAR | Rectal ulcer (1 month after hydrogel spacer insertion, resolved without further intervention) | 1 |
Beydoun 2013 (BT) | 5 spaceOAR | Perineal pain or rectal discomfort (resolved without intervention within 1 week) | 3 |
Heikkila 2014 (LDR BT) | 10 DuraSeal | Sensation of pressure/fullness in the rectum (self-limiting symptoms, resolved by 3 months with medication) | 1 |
Heikkila 2014 (LDR BT) | 10 DuraSeal | Sudden need for defecation (self-limiting, symptoms resolved by 3 months with medication) | 1 |
Storm 2014 (HDR BT with IMRT) | 100 with DuraSeal versus 100 without | Infection (bacterial prostatitis and epididymitis), adjusted antibiotic prophylaxis before procedure | 6% (n=3) |
Wu 2018 (HDR BT boost to EBRT) | 18 with spaceOAR versus 36 without spacer) | Rectal perineal abscess (1 month after SpaceOAR insertion. required incision, drainage and antibiotics) | 1 |
Mahal 2014 (salvage LDR BT) Yeh 2016 (HDR BT +IMRT) | 11 DuraSeal 326 (SpaceOAR) | Prostatorectal fistula requiring diverting colostomy and an interposition rotational gracilis muscle flap Fistula and necrotising fasciitis requiring a diverting colostomy. | 1 1 |
Yeh 2016 (HDR BT +IMRT) | 326 (SpaceOAR) | Severe proctitis | 1 |
Other complications at follow up | |||
Taggar 2018 LDR BT LDR BT+EBRT Salvage LDR BT | (74 with spacer 136 without spacer) (SpaceOAR) | Diarrhoea | LDR BT alone 7.7% versus 15.9% LDR BT +EBRT 12.5% versus 4.1% Salvage 12.5% versus 5.3% |
Rectal discomfort | 8% (n=7) versus 0 | ||
Rectal bleeding | 5% (n=2) versus 21.3 (n=18) |
Study 6 Payne 2021
Study type | Systematic review and meta-analysis |
Country | USA, UK, Switzerland and Germany |
Study search details | Inception to August 2020; Databases searched: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, and Embase; no language or date restrictions applied. Supplemental searches were done in the directory of open access journals, Google scholar, and reference lists of included articles and relevant meta-analyses searched. Unpublished or grey literature was also included. |
Study population and number | n=11 studies (14 papers) with 780 people having SpaceOAR hydrogel spacer before SBRT for localised prostate cancer. (5 prospective and 6 retrospective studies) Clinical stages: localised or locally advanced prostate cancer (T1-T3), Risk category: varied but intermediate risk PSA levels median 8.2 (range 6.3 to 9.8 nanograms/ml) |
Age and sex | Median age 70 years (range 69 to 73 years). |
Study selection criteria | Inclusion criteria: randomised clinical trials or observational studies of people who had the perirectal hydrogel spacer versus patients who had no spacer before SBRT for localised or locally advanced prostate cancer. Exclusion criteria: review articles, commentaries, letters, studies with fewer than 5 patients, studies of other rectal spacers such as hyaluronic acid and rectal balloons, studies that did not report an outcome specified in this review and duplicate publications. |
Technique | Intervention: Injection of a prostate-rectum spacer (absorbable polyethylene glycol hydrogel‑SpaceOAR system) between the Denonvilliers fascia and anterior rectal wall before radiotherapy. Radiotherapy protocols: SBRT (≥5.0 Gy fractions) protocols varied and ranged from 7 Gy to 10 Gy per fraction with total dose ranging from 19 to 45 Gy. 561/780 had dose-escalated SBRT regimens (37.5 GY to 45Gy in 5 fractions). |
Follow up | Median 20 months (range, 9 to 24 months). |
Conflict of interest/source of funding | The study was funded by Boston Scientific and they were involved in design and interpretation of data, review and approval of manuscript. Authors served as consultants, and either received personal fees, grants, honoraria, travel expenses, and non-financial support from Boston scientific and other companies. |
Analysis
Follow-up issues: follow up varied across studies and was limited to only mid-term.
Study design issues: systematic review protocol was registered prospectively and was done according to the PRISMA reporting guidelines. Comprehensive literature search was done, studies were screened and data extracted into a predesigned form by 2 reviewers, any disagreements were resolved by discussion. Multiple studies with overlapping patients were carefully assessed and included. Observational studies included were associated with risks of bias. A random-effects meta-analysis was done for analysis of rectal irradiation only. Heterogeneity was noted among study designs, patient characteristics, and SBRT protocols.
Study population issues: patient characteristics inconsistently reported and risk categories varied between studies. Androgen deprivation therapy usage also varied.
Other issues: quality of life not reported in any studies. Toxicities in other organs not assessed in this review.
Key efficacy findings
Number of patients analysed: 780 patients
Perirectal separation distance: the perirectal distance achieved with SpaceOAR implant ranged from 9.6mm to 14.5mm (median 10.8mm).
Rectal irradiation with perirectal hydrogel spacer versus without spacer (the percentage reduction with spacer versus without spacer in the percentage of rectum having 50% (A), 70% (B), and (C) 90% of the maximum prescribed radiation dosage)
In a pooled analysis of 5 studies, patients who had the perirectal hydrogel spacer before SBRT had 29% to 56% lower rectal irradiation compared with control patients who did not have perirectal hydrogel spacer.
Gastrointestinal [GI] toxicity (risk of a grade 2 or 3+ bowel complication in early [<3months] and late [>3months] follow up)
In early follow up, grade 2 GI complications were reported in 7%- 18% patients and no early grade 3 complications were reported. In late follow up, rates were 4% for grade 2 and 1% for grade 3 GI toxicity. Over a median follow up of 16 months (range 11 to 36 months), freedom from biochemical failure ranged from 96.4% to 100%.
Study | Early grade 2 | Early grade 3 | Late grade 2 | Late grade 3 | Freedom from biochemical failure |
Alongi (2013) (n=8) | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8/8 (100%) |
Chen (2020) (n=250) | 18/250 (7.2%) | 0 | 10/250 (4%) | 1/250 (0.4%) | 241/250 (96%) |
Cuccia (2020) (n=10) | 0 | 0 | - | - | - |
Hwang (2019, 2018) (n=50) | 2/50 (4%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 50/50 (100%) |
Jones 2017 (Folkert 2017) (n=44) | 1/44 | 0 | - | 0 | 44/44 (100%) |
King 2018 (n=6) | 0 | 0 | - | - | - |
Ogita 2019 (n=40) | 7/40 (18%) | 0 | - | - | - |
Pryor 2019 Wilton 2017 (n=80) | - | 0/80 | - | - | - |
Ruggeri 2014 (n=11) | - | - | - | - | - |
Saito 2020 (n=20) | - | - | - | - | - |
Zelefsky 2019 (n=269) | - | - | - | 3/269 (1.1%) | - |
Study 7 Mok G 2014
Study type | Systematic review |
---|---|
Country | UK |
Study search details | Search period: not reported; databases searched: MEDLINE |
Study population and number | 11 studies (reported within 12 articles), n=346 patients |
Age | Not reported |
Study selection criteria | Inclusion criteria: published articles and conference abstracts from preclinical and clinical studies; prostate cancer patients in whom PR spaces were implanted Exclusion criteria: not provided. |
Technique | Intervention: Prostate-rectum spacers compared to each other: PEG spacers (4 studies), hyaluronic acid spacers (5 studies), biodegradable balloons (1 study), and collagen implants (1 study). An additional 3 preclinical studies were included (2 used PEG spacers and 1 used a biodegradable balloon spacer). Radiotherapy protocols: different treatment techniques used (IMRT, VMAT, IMPT, 3D-CRT, and HDR monotherapy) in the primary studies. EBRT (6 studies) and BT (5 studies). |
Follow up | 3 to 72 months |
Conflict of interest/source of funding | None; Review funded by an institute for a health technology assessment report. |
Analysis
Follow-up issues: varied across studies.
Study design issues: review compared different spacers; comprehensive literature search was done but the review did not describe the included primary studies in detail including study designs and also did not assess the risk of bias. Dosimetric effects and clinical benefits were assessed. A narrative synthesis was done but risk of bias not considered while interpreting results.
Study population issues: patient characteristics of the included studies not described in the overview.
Key efficacy findings
Number of patients analysed: 346
Study | Spacer type (ml injected) | Radiation technique | Mean prostate-rectum distance (mm) | Mean rectal Vxx Gy/% without spacer/ with spacer | Relative reduction of rectal Vxx Gy/% | Acute or late toxicity |
Weber 2012 N=8 | PEG hydrogel (10) | IMRT (78 Gy) VMAT (78 Gy) IMPT (78 Gy) | 7-10 7-10 7-10 | V70Gy: 9.8%/5.3% V70Gy: 10.1%/3.9% V70Gy: 9.7%/5.0% | V70Gy: 46% V70Gy: 61% V70Gy: 49% | - |
Pinkawa 2011 N=18 | PEG hydrogel (10) | IMRT (78 Gy) 3D-CRT (78 Gy) | 10 10 | V70Gy:17.2%/7.5% V70Gy:14.4%/6.1% | V70Gy: 56% V70Gy: 58% | - |
Song 2013 N=48 | PEG hydrogel (10) | IMRT (78 Gy) | 9.7 | V70Gy:13.0%/5.1% | V70Gy: 60% | Focal rectal mucosal necrosis and bladder perforation (n=3, self-limiting) (Uhl 2014) Acute GI toxicity grade 1 39.6% grade 2 toxicity 12.5%. No grade 3 or 4 toxicities. Acute GU toxicity grade 1 41.7% grade 2 35.4% grade 3 2.1%. No grade 4 toxicities Late grade 1 GI toxicity 4.3% (2) no grade 2 or worse toxicity. Late GU toxicity grade 1 in 17.0% grade 2 toxicity 2.1%. No grade 3 or worse GU toxicity. |
Chapet 2013 n-16 | Hyaluronic acid (10) | IMRT (62 Gy, 3.1 Gy/fx) | 11.5 | V90%: 7.7 cc/2.1 cc V70%: 13.3 cc/7.6 cc | V90%: 74% V70%: 43% | Rectal toxicity 0% versus 30% in historical controls |
Chapet 2014 N=10 | Hyaluronic acid (10) | SBRT (32.5 Gy, 6.5 Gy/fx) (42.5 Gy, 8.5 Gy/fx) | 10.1 | V90% 3.2 cc/0.3 cc V90% 3.5 cc/0.3 cc | V90%: 90% V90%: 91% | - |
Noyes 2012 N=11 | Collagen (20) | IMRT (75.6 Gy) | 12.7 | V40Gy: 7%-15% in collagen group 20 to 25% without collagen | V40Gy: 40%-65% | No GI toxicities |
Melchert 2013 N=22 | Balloon (16) | IMRT/3D-CRT (74 Gy) | 19.2 | V60Gy: 30% pre-implant /15% post implant | V60Gy: 50% (Gez 2013) V90%: 72% | Acute dysuria grade 1 or 2 (58%) Urinary retention needing catheter (n=1) Diarrhoea (grade 1 17%) Proctitis (grade 1 8%) |
Spacer absorption: reported in 2 studies:
Melchert 2013 (n=22, balloon implantation): complete deflation and absorption at 6 months in all except 2.
Noyes 2011 (n=11, collagen): 50% at 6 months; 100% at 12 months.
Study | Spacer type (ml injected) | Radiation technique | Mean prostate-rectum distance (mm) | Mean rectal Vxx Gy/% without spacer/ with spacer | Acute and late toxicity |
Storm 2014 (n=100 hydrogel versus no hydrogel) | PEG hydrogel (15) | HDR BT monotherapy (13.5-14.0 Gy x 2 fx) IMRT (45 Gy) + HDR BT boost (9.5-11.5 Gy x 2 fx) | 12 | D2cc = 60%/47% | Bacterial peritonitis 2 (had prophylactic treatment). |
Prada 2007 (n=27) | Hyaluronic acid (3-7) | 3D-CRT (46 Gy) + HDR BT boost (11.5 Gy x 2 fx) | 20 | Dmax = 7.1Gy/5.1Gy Dmean = 6.1 Gy/4.4 Gy | None related to HA implant |
Prada 2009 (n=36) | Hyaluronic acid (6-8) | LDR BT 125I 145 Gy | 20 | NA | Rectal mucosal damage 5% |
Prada 2012 (n=40) | Hyaluronic acid (NA) | HDR BT 192Ir 19 Gy x 1 fx | 20 | NA | None related to HA implant GI toxicity: asymptomatic anal mucositis (grade 1) 12.5% GU toxicity -urinary obstruction grade 1 requiring catheterisation in 1 (2.5%). At 6 months 27.5% had mild grade 1 urinary obstruction. |
Wilder 2010 (n=10) | Hyaluronic acid (9) | IMRT (50.4 Gy) + HDR BT boost (5.4 Gy x 4 fx) | 13 | V70Gy = 4% in HA group 25% in controls | None related to HA implant Grade 1-3 diarrhoea 0% versus 29.7% |
Key safety findings
Study | Complications | % (n) |
Noyes 2012 n=11 Collagen | Acute urinary obstruction | 5/11 |
Self-limiting light rectal pressure | 3/11 | |
Temporary catheterisation for acute urinary retention (presumed to be secondary to pudendal nerve blocking) | 1/11 | |
Gez 2013 n=2013 ERB | During balloon insertion | n=26 |
Pain at the perineal skin/scar (ranging 1–7, VAS score) | 27 (7/26) | |
Acute pain in the anus (ranging 2–9, VAS score) | 15 (4/26) | |
Acute urinary retention (needed catheterisation, resolved within few hours) | 12 (3/26) | |
Dysuria and nocturia (grade 1–2) | 12 (3/26) | |
Penile bleeding | 4 (1/26) | |
Balloon failure after implantation (needing removal) | 4 (1/26) | |
Premature balloon deflation | 3 | |
During radiotherapy | n=23 | |
Proctitis | 8 (2/23) | |
Diarrhoea (grade 1) | 17 (4/23) | |
Signs of blood in faeces (grade 1) | 4 (1/23) | |
Constipation (grade1) | 4 (1/23) | |
Erectile dysfunction | 4 (1/23) | |
Fatigue | 4 (1/23) | |
Decreased urine flow | 4 (1/23) |
Study 8 Ardekani 2021
Study type | Systematic review |
---|---|
Country | USA, Netherlands, UK, Germany, |
Study search details | Search period: January 2000 to December 2019; databases searched: PubMed; Additionally, a further search was done from January 2010 to December 2019 for abstracts. Reference lists of articles were also reviewed for relevant articles. |
Study population and number | 21 studies of patients with prostate cancer who had a rectal spacer during radiation therapy (n=287). |
Age and sex | Age not reported |
Study selection criteria | Inclusion criteria: studies in English, in humans, full text articles specifically investigating the impact of rectal displacement devices on prostate motion. Exclusion criteria: review articles, case reports, animal studies, lack of relevant outcome data, non-English articles, editorials and commentaries. |
Technique | Rectal spacers used during EBRT for prostate cancer. Different radiotherapy techniques (IMRT, 3DCRT, VMAT, PT) were used. 12 studies evaluated role of ERBs, 4 evaluated polyethylene glycol hydrogel spacers (SpaceOAR) 4 studies assessed rectal retractors (RR), and 1 study assessed ProSpare. |
Follow up | Not reported |
Conflict of interest/source of funding | None reported |
Analysis
Study design issues: systematic review protocol was done according to the PRISMA reporting guidelines. There were no prospective randomised controlled trials. All studies included were either non-randomised two-arm studies or single-arm studies, relatively small (less than 20 patients in each arm) and were heterogenous in terms of population and outcomes reported. There are conflicting findings reported by different studies, which may be due to case mix or other contextual factors.
Other issues: only data on ERBs and hydrogel spacers is considered within this review. data on alternative rectal spacers (Prospare and RR) are out of the scope of this review as they are not biodegradable spacers.
Key efficacy findings
No of patients analysed: 287 (ERB in 180 and hydrogel in 107)
Study | No of patients | Radiotherapy technique | Results |
Wacher 2002 | 10 with 40ml air filled ERB and 10 without | 3DCRT | AP displacement: >5mm in 20% of ERB patients. >5mm in 80% of non-ERB patients. ERB significantly reduces maximum AP displacement of prostate (p=0.008). |
Hung 2011 | 14 with 120ml water filled balloon and 15 without | IMRT | AP displacement: mean 5.4±3.4 mm in ERB. mean 7.3± 4.8 mm in non-ERB ERB reduces inter-fractional prostate motion but not statistically significant (p=0.22–0.38) |
Van lin 2005 | 22 with an 80ml air filled ERB and 30 without | IMRT | AP displacement: mean 0.4±4.7mm ERB. 0.6±4.3mm in non-ERB ERB does not decrease the inter-fractional prostate motion (p=NR) |
Smeenk 2012 | 15 with an 100ml air filled ERB and 15 without | IMRT | AP displacement: 3.9 mm ERB, 3.8 mm non-ERB ERB does not significantly reduce the inter-fractional variation (p=0.06–0.92). |
Takayama 2011 | 7 with a double ERB and 7 without | 3DCRT or IMRT | AP displacement: 1.3 ± 0.9mm ERB; 2.8 ± 1.8mm non-ERB. ERB only reduces inter-fractional prostate motion in the AP direction (p=0.014) |
Teh 2002 | 10 with an 100ml air filled ERB | Combined radioactive seed implant and IMRT | AP displacement: 1mm ERB can reduce inter-fractional prostate motion. |
Mc Gary 2002 | 10 with an 100ml air filled ERB | IMRT | AP displacement: 0.42 ± 0.35mm Most improvements observe in AP displacement. |
El-Bassiouni 2006 | 15 with a 60ml air filled ERB | 3DCRT | AP displacement: 3.8±4.0mm; ERB does not eliminate prostate motion in anterior rectal wall. |
5 studies (3 two-arm and 2 single-arm studies; 113 patients) reported that using an ERB reduces intra-fractional prostate motion
5 two-arm studies (115 patients) have reported that using an ERB does not result in a significant reduction of inter-fractional prostate motion.
3 single-arm studies (35 patients) have reported that use of an ERB may reduce inter-fractional prostate motion.
No of patients | Radiotherapy technique | Results | |
Juneja 2015 | 12 with hydrogel spacer versus 14 without spacer | VMAT | Mean prostate motion was 1.5 ± 0.8mm with spacer and 1.1 ± 0.9mm without spacer (p< 0.05). No significant difference in the average time of motion >3mm between group with and without hydrogel, which were 7.7 ± 1.1% and 4.5 ± 0.9% (p> 0.05), respectively. Therefore, hydrogel spacer has no effect on intra-fractional prostate motion. |
Hedrick 2017 | 10 with ERB versus 16 with hydrogel spacer | IGRT-PBT | The mean vector shift was 0.9mm with hydrogel and 0.6mm with ERB (p< 0.001). These results were not clinically significant because the minimum robust evaluation tolerance was 3mm. Prostate vector shifts were similar between ERB and hydrogel for shifts >3mm (p=0.13) and >5mm (p=0.36). Prostate displacements were clinically comparable for both ERB and hydrogel spacer groups. |
Picardi 2016 | 10 with hydrogel spacer and 10 without | IGRT-VMAT | Overall mean inter-fraction prostate displacements >5mm in AP and SI direction were similar between with and without spacer (AP direction p=0.78; SI direction p=0.47). Prostate displacements 45mm in the AP and SI directions were similar for both groups. Systematic and random setup errors were similar for both groups. |
Pinkawa 2013 | 15 with hydrogel spacer and 30 without | IMRT | Prostate position displacement >5mm were similar for both groups (no statistically significant difference p>0.05), but posterior prostate displacement could be decreased in group with hydrogel spacer (p=0.03). |
4 two-arm studies (117 patients) reported that prostate displacements were clinically comparable with or without hydrogel spacer. One of those studies compared hydrogel spacer against ERB and found no significant differences in prostate motion.
Toxicity results
Study | No of patients | Radiotherapy technique | Toxicity results |
Van lin 2017 Prospective randomised study | 24 with an 80ml air filled ERB versus 24 non-ERB | 3D-CRT | Acute rectal toxicity ERB versus non-ERB Grade 1: 46% versus 50%, NS Grade 2: 29.2% versus 29.2%, NS Late rectal toxicity ERB versus non-ERB Grade ≥1: 21% versus 58.3%, p=0.003 No grade 2–3 in ERB |
Goldner 2007 Prospective study | 166 with a 40ml air filled ERB | 3D-CRT | Late rectal toxicity Grade 0: 57%; Grade 1: 11% Grade 2: 28%; Grade 3: 3% VRS Grade 0: 32%; Grade 1: 22% Grade 2: 32%; Grade 3: 14% |
Deville 2012 Retrospective study | 100 with a 100ml water filled ERB | IMRT | Acute GI toxicity Grade 0: 69% 1: 23% Grade 2: 8% Grade 3–4: 0% |
Wortel 2017 Prospective phase III trial | 85 with an 80–100ml air filled ERB versus 242 without ERB | IMRT | Acute mucous loss: 28.4% in non-ERB versus 16.8% in ERB, p< 0.001. Acute rectal discomfort: 59.9% in non-ERB versus 41.0% in ERB, p=0.003. Late rectal complaints in the ERB group were statistically significantly lower than in the non-ERB group. |
Teh 2018 Retrospective study | 596 with a 100ml air filled ERB | IMRT | Late GI toxicity Grade ≥2: 8.5% Grade ≥3: 1.2% |
Study | No of patients | Radiotherapy technique | Toxicity results |
Uhl 2013 Prospective study | 52 | IMRT | Presented under study 3, 6 |
Mariados 2015, Hamstra 2017 Prospective RCT | 149 with hydrogel spacer versus 79 without | IMRT | Presented under study 1, 2, 3,4 |
Pinkawa 2017 Retrospective study | 101 with spacer versus 66 without | IMRT/VMAT | Presented under study 2, 4 |
Te Velde 2017 Retrospective study | 65 with spacer versus 56 without | IMRT | Presented under study 2, 4 |
Hwang 2019 Retrospective study | 50 | SBRT | GI toxicity 1 month after RT Grade 1: 8% Grade 2: 4% No acute or late rectal toxicity was reported. |
Dinha 2020 Retrospective study | 92 with a 90ml water filled ERB versus 75 with hydrogel spacer | PBT | At 2 years actuarial rate of grade ≥2 late rectal bleeding was 19% in ERB arm and 3% in spacer arm; p=0.003. EPIC-bowel QoL composite scores were less diminished in spacer arm (absolute mean difference 5.5; p=0.030). |
Study 9 Aminsharif A 2019
Study type | Review |
---|---|
Country | USA |
Study search details | Search period: January 2015 to March 2019, in the MAUDE database. |
Study population and number | N=25 patients |
Age | Not reported |
Study selection criteria | Not reported |
Technique | Injection of a prostate-rectum spacer (absorbable polyethylene glycol hydrogel SpaceOAR) posterior to the Denonvilliers fascia and anterior to the rectal wall at the level between mid-gland and apex of the prostate before radiotherapy. |
Follow up | Varied across studies (range 6 to 60 months) |
Conflict of interest/source of funding | Authors state that there is no potential conflict of interest and no funding was received. |
Analysis
Study design issues: authors reviewed the manufacturer website for the safety profile and complications associated with the SpaceOAR hydrogel and compared with voluntary reports submitted to the Manufacturer and User Facility Device Experience (MAUDE) database. The reports were examined for potential device malfunction, post-malfunction manufacturer assessment, and potential changes to patient management. All included reports and adverse events were classified and stratified according to the previously established MAUDE complication classification system.
Study population issues: limited data about the patient and disease characteristics, physician experience, case volume reported on the database.
Other issues: authors state that the cause of these complications is unclear and may be potentially related to the disease process or patient co-morbidities, injection or radiotherapy rather than the hydrogel spacer.
Key safety findings
Number of patients analysed: 22 reports of 25 cases.
Study | Year of report | Reported adverse event | N=25 |
Level I* | 2015, 2017 | Venous injection—No sequelae | 2 |
2017 | Tenesmus with air in rectal wall—No sequelae | 1 | |
2018 | Venous injection—No sequelae | 1 | |
2018 | Rectal wall erosion—No sequelae | 1 | |
Level II* | 2018 | Purulent drainage from perineum requiring antibiotics | 1 |
2018 | Pulmonary embolism requiring anticoagulant | 4 | |
Level III* | 2016,2018, 2019 | Perineal abscess requiring drainage^ | 3 |
2016 | Proctitis requiring colostomy^ | 1 | |
2017, 2018, 2019 | Recto-urethral fistula requiring diverting colostomy^ | 4 | |
2018 | Rectal ulcer and haemorrhage requiring surgery^ | 1 | |
2018 | Perirectal fistula requiring surgical intervention^ | 1 | |
2019 | Urinary tract infection and prostatic abscess requiring drainage^ | 1 | |
Level IV* | 2018 | Perineal abscess^—subsequent death from alcoholic cardiomyopathy | 1 |
2018 | Severe urosepsis—ICU admission | 1 | |
2018 | Severe anaphylactic reaction | 1 | |
2019 | Dizziness/nausea post-procedure leading to unresponsiveness and death (cause of death unclear) | 1 |
*Classified according to MAUDE classification system: Level I (none/mild)—no harm, Level II (moderate)—minimal harm requiring minor intervention, Level III (severe)—significant harm requiring major/procedural intervention(s), Level IV (life threatening)—ICU admission/death.
Surgical intervention was needed in 11 patients with infectious complications (proctitis and abscesses, perirectal fistulae and significant bleeding from the procedure).
Study 10 Hall WA 2021
Study type | Commentary |
---|---|
Country | USA, UK |
Study search period | Search period: May 1, 2015, to May 1, 2020, MAUDE database. |
Study population and number | N=85 patients |
Age | Not reported |
Study selection criteria | Not reported |
Technique | Commentary including data from MAUDE database, not primary data. |
Follow up | |
Conflict of interest/source of funding | The project was supported by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre at The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust and The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK. Authors received some research and travel funding from companies, outside of this work. One author reports personal fees from The Institute of Cancer Research, during the conduct of the study and a patent for a prostate location and stabilisation device. |
Analysis
Study design issues: data was accessed online. The description of each event was reviewed and scored by 2 independent radiation oncologists. Event descriptions were characterised using the Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (version 5). The results were then compared collectively, and a final adjudication of scored toxicity events was created. Reporting of adverse events on the database is voluntary and is not comprehensive so it is difficult to calculate actual rates of adverse events. They are also limited in terms of accuracy, verifiability, and scope.
Key safety findings
Number of patients analysed: 85 events related to hydrogel SpaceOAR
69% (59/85) events were grade 3, 4, or 5.
24% (20/85) were grade 4 events, including multiple independent descriptions of colostomy (n=7) anaphylactic shock (n=2), rectal wall injection, pulmonary embolism requiring hospital admission (n=5), recto-urethral fistula (n=8)
One death was reported.
Study 11 Chapet PJ [2015]
Study type | Case series |
Country | France |
Recruitment period | 2010–12 |
Study population and number | n=36 patients with low-risk to intermediate-risk localised prostate cancer Mean prostate volume: 45.9 cc Tumour classification: 1c (n=18), 2a (n=10), 2b (n=8). Gleason score: 6 (n=22), 7 (n=14) PSA: mean 9.46 nanograms/ml |
Age and sex | Mean age: 71 years; 100% male |
Patient selection criteria | patients aged between 18-80 years, adenocarcinoma of the prostate histologically proven, low- to intermediate-risk cancer according to the D'Amico classification (T1c to T2b, Gleason score <7, and PSA <20 nanograms/ml) and Karnofsky performance score >60 were included. Patients with metastases, regional lymph nodes1.5 cm on CT scan or MRI, inflammatory disease of the digestive tract, previous pelvic irradiation, and previous malignant disease other than basal cell carcinoma were excluded. |
Technique | Injection of 10 ml hyaluronic acid during hypofractionated intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) (with 20 fractions of 3.1 Gy, up to 62 Gy total dose over 4 weeks) Injection was done under local anaesthesia (10 ml lidocaine 1%). All patients had daily prostate repositioning on the 3 gold markers implanted. Antibiotics were given before and after injection. |
Follow up | 3 months |
Conflict of interest/source of funding | None |
Analysis
Follow-up issues: 1 patient who developed an adverse event (grade 3 toxicity) was excluded from the analysis because no radiotherapy was administered.
Study design issues: prospective study in 2 centres designed to assess acute toxicity and tolerance of the injection. Acute toxicity was defined as occurring during radiotherapy or within 3 months after radiotherapy and graded according to the CTCAE version 4.0. Tolerance of hyaluronic acid (pain) was assessed on a 10‑point visual analogue scale during the injection, 30 minutes after injection and then by the use of CTC at each visit. Patients who had at least 1 week of radiotherapy were included in the tolerance analysis
Key efficacy findings
Number of patients analysed: 36
Overall toxicity | % (n) |
Grade 0 (no toxicity) | 6 (2/35) |
Grade 1 | 40 (14/35) |
Grade 2 | 54 (19/35) |
Grade 3 or 4 toxicity | 0 |
During radiotherapy | |
Acute GU toxicity^ (at least 1) | 94.3 (33/35) |
Grade 2 toxicity (at least 1): urinary obstruction, frequency* | 54.2 (19/35) |
Acute GI toxicity^^ | 57.1 (20/35) |
Grade 1 (at least 1) | 54.2 (19/35) |
Grade 2 | 2.8 (1/35): proctitis |
3‑month follow up (n=34) | |
GU toxicity | 41.2 (14/34) 4 patients had grade 2 obstruction or frequency |
GI toxicity: grade 1 | 2.9 (1/34) |
*The toxicity was present at baseline in 7 patients.
^GU toxicities included obstruction, frequency, incontinence, haematuria, infection, spasms or stenosis.
^^ GU toxicities included diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, proctitis and rectal mucositis.
Key safety findings
Haematoma developed behind the bladder in 1 patient (within hours after injection) with a moderate platelet count. This was removed by laparotomy.
Tolerance of injection (measured on a VAS) (n=28)
At the time of injection the mean pain score was 4.6±2.3. Thirty minutes after the injection 2 patients reported pain scores as 2 and 3/10. 3 patients had other symptoms such as lower abdominal pain, haematuria and asthenia
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