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    Summary of key evidence on biodegradable spacer insertion to reduce rectal toxicity during radiotherapy for prostate cancer

    Study 1 Mariados N 2015, Hamstra DA 2017, 2018, Karsh 2018

    Study details

    Study type

    Randomised Controlled Trial

    Country

    US (multicentre)

    Recruitment period

    2012 to 2013

    Study population and number

    n=222 (149 with spacer versus 73 without spacer [control]) patients with clinical stage T1 or T2 prostate cancer (NCCN low or intermediate risk).

    Age and sex

    Mean age: spacer group 66.4 years; control group: 67.7% years; 100% male

    Patient selection criteria

    Men with stage T1 and T2 prostate cancer, a Gleason score of <7, PSA concentration of 20 nanograms/ml, and a Zubrod performance status of 0–1, planning to have image guided intensity modulated radiotherapy (IG-IMRT) were included.

    Patients with a prostate volume of >80 cm3, extracapsular extension of disease or >50% positivity biopsy scores, metastatic disease, indicated for or had recent androgen deprivation therapy and prior prostate surgery or radiotherapy were excluded.

    Technique

    Intervention:Injection of a prostate-rectum spacer (polyethylene glycol hydrogel‑SpaceOAR system) during IG-IMRT (total dose of 79.2Gy in 1.8 Gy fractions to the prostate with or without the seminal vesicles delivered 5 days weekly)A planning target volume of 5-10mm was used.

    Control – IG-IMRT alone (total dose of 79.2Gy in 1.8 Gy in 44 fractions to the prostate with or without the seminal vesicles delivered 5 days weekly) with no injection.

    Patients had CT and MRI scans for treatment planning, followed with fiducial marker placement using transperineal approach. Antibiotic prophylaxis was administered before procedure 95% of time. General anaesthesia in 36%, local in 31%, monitored anaesthesia in 26%, conscious sedation in 6%, other in 10%.

    Follow-up

    Median 37 months (15 months, Mariados N, 2015; 3 years Hamstra DA 2017, 2018, Karsh 2018)

    Conflict of interest/source of funding

    The study was supported by research funding from Augmenix. Two authors are shareholders and 1 author received speaking honoraria from the manufacturer. 2 authors have provided consulting services.

    Analysis

    Follow-up issues: short follow-up period. Patients evaluated at baseline, weekly during IG-IMRT, and at 3, 6, 12 and 15 months. Three patients were lost to follow up during the study period (15 months). Extended follow up at 3 years was voluntary, with each institute choosing whether to participate. 63% of both control and spacer patients were available at extended follow up and no differences were found in the median follow-up period between the 2 treatment groups (control median 37 months, spacer median 37.1 months, p>0.05).

    Study design issues: prospective single-blind phase III trial in 20 centres evaluating safety and effectiveness of hydrogel spacer, Patients were randomised 2:1 (by opening envelopes) to have either spacer injection or no injection (control). Patients were blinded to randomisation, allocation concealed. The planning methodology from baseline and post procedural treatment plans was same. The primary effectiveness endpoint was the proportion of patients achieving >25% reduction in rectal volume having at least 70Gy (V70) because of spacer placement. The primary safety endpoint was the proportion of patients having grade 1 or greater rectal or procedural adverse events in the first 6 months. All IG-IMRT planning documentation and CT and MRI scans were assessed by a blinded independent laboratory. All adverse events were recorded and attributed by an independent clinical events committee blinded to treatment randomisation. Rectal and urinary adverse events attributed to radiation were included for toxicity analysis according to National Cancer Institute's Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (CTCAE) version 4 grading system. Quality of life (QoL) assessed using the Expanded Prostate Cancer Index Composite (EPIC) health related QoL questionnaire at different follow-up visits. Declines in QoL assessed using predetermined 5- and 10‑point thresholds for minimal clinically detectable QoL changes.

    Study population issues: There were no differences between the groups with regard to baseline tumour characteristics, demographics and medical morbidities.

    Key efficacy findings

    Number of patients analysed:220 (148 with spacer versus 72 without spacer [control])

    Spacer placement success in spacer group (defined as hydrogel present in perirectal space): 98.7% (146/148)

    Ease of spacer application:

    Urologists and oncologists rated spacer application as 'easy' and 'very easy' 98.7% of time.

    Perirectal space (distance between the posterior prostate capsule and anterior rectal wall on axial mid-gland T2 weighted MRIs) (Mariados 2015).

    Spacer group

    Control group

    Baseline

    1.6±2.2 mm

    NR

    Post spacer application

    12.6±3.9 mm

    1.6±2.0 mm

    3 months

    9.0±5.9 mm

    NR

    Rectal dose volume in spacer group (Mean±SD)1

    Spacer group (n=148)

    Control group (n=72)

    p value

    Parameter

    rV50

    rV60

    rV70

    rV80

    rV70

    % before spacer

    25.7±11.1

    18.4±7.7

    12.4±5.4

    4.6±3.1

    12.4

    0.95

    % after spacer

    12.2±8.7

    6.8±5.5

    3.3±3.2

    0.6±0.9

    11.7

    <0.0001

    % of absolute reduction

    13.442

    11.56

    9.078

    3.933

    % of relative reduction

    52.3

    62.9

    73.3

    86.3

    p value

    <0.0001

    <0.0001

    <0.0001

    <0.0001

    Overall 97.3% of spacer patients had a 25% reduction in rV70. Additionally, 100% and 92% of all spacer and control patient plans met all rectal dose constraints respectively.

    Spacer application did not increase the dose in neighbouring tissues (mean pre and post application bladder V70 being 11.3% and 11.0%). No differences were found in the values for bladder or bladder wall (p>0.001 for all).

    The mean penile bulb dose was significantly reduced in spacer group than in the control group (18.0 Gy versus 22.8 Gy, p=0.036) and doses from V10 to V30.

    Acute and late rectal and urinary tract toxicity

    Acute toxicity (from procedure to 3‑month visit)Mariados 2015

    Rectal toxicity scores (%)

    Urinary tract toxicity scores (%)

    Grade

    Spacer % (n=148)

    Control % (n=72)

    p value

    Spacer % (n=148)

    Control % (n=72)

    p value

    0

    73 (108)

    68 (49)

    0.525

    9.5 (14)

    9.7 (7)

    0.488

    1

    23 (34)

    27.8 (20)

    52.7 (78)

    45.8 (33)

    >2

    4.1 (6)*

    4.2 (3)*

    37.8 (56)*

    44.4 (32)*

    Late toxicity (between 3 and 15 month visits)Mariados 2015

    Grade

    Spacer % (n=148)

    Control % (n=71)

    p value

    Spacer % (n=148)

    Control % (n=71)

    p value

    0

    98 (145)

    93 966)

    0.044

    90.5 (134)

    91.5 (65)

    0.622

    1

    2 (3)+

    5.6 (4)+

    2.7 (4)

    4.2 (3)

    >2

    0

    1.4 (1)+

    6.8 (10)

    4.2 (3)

    Late toxicity (between 15 months and 3 year visits)Hamstra 2017

    Rectal toxicity scores (%)

    Urinary tract toxicity scores (%)

    Grade

    Spacer % (n=94)

    Control % (n=46)

    p value

    Spacer % (n=94)

    Control % (n=46)

    p value

    >1

    2.0 (95% CI 4-20%)

    9.0 (95% CI 1-6%)

    0.28

    HR 0.24 (95% CI 0.06-0.97)

    4 (95% CI 2-10%)

    15 (95% CI 8-29%)

    0.046

    HR 0.36 (95% CI 0.12 -1.1)

    >2

    0

    5.7++ (95% CI 2-17%)

    0.012

    7

    7

    0.7

    *No grade 3 or 4 toxicity reported within 3 months.

    + late rectal toxicity was seen in 2% of spacer patients (3 grade 1 events: 1 rectal bleeding, 1 rectal urgency, and 1 proctitis) and 7% of control patients (grade 1–3 rectal bleeding, 1 rectal urgency and 1 grade 3 proctitis). There was no rectal toxicity greater than grade 1 in spacer group1. ++ 1 case of grade 2 rectal toxicity in control arm (Hamstra 2017).

    Bowel QoL (assessed using EPIC questionnaire)

    At 15 months, 11.6% and 21.4% of spacer and control group patients had 10‑point declines in bowel QoL (p=0.087)1. From 6 months onward, bowel QoL consistently favoured the spacer group (p=0.002), with the difference at 3 years (5.8 points; p<0.05) meeting the threshold for a MID (5-7 points). At 3 years, more patients in the control group than in the spacer group had experienced a MID decline in bowel QoL (5-point decline: 41% versus 14%; p=0.002; OR 0.28, 95% CI 0.13-0.63) and even large declines (twice the MID) (10 decline: 21% versus 5%, p=0.02, OR 0.30, 95% CI 0.11-0.83) (Hamstra 2017).

    Urinary QoL (assessed using EPIC questionnaire)

    At 6 months, 8.8% and 22.2% of spacer and control group patients had 10-point urinary declines (p=0.003). At 12 and 15 months the declines were similar for both groups (Mariados 2015).

    The control group had a 3.9-point greater decline in urinary QoL compared with the spacer group at 3 years (p<.05), but the difference did not meet the MID threshold (5-7 points). At 3 years, more patients in the control group than in the spacer group had experienced a MID decline in urinary QoL (6-point decline: 30% vs 17%; p=0.04; OR 0.41, 95% CI 0.18-0.95) and even large declines (twice the MID) (12-point decline: 23% vs 8%; p=0.02; OR 0.31, 95% CI 0.11-0.85) (Hamstra 2017).

    Sexual QoL: 41% (88/222) of patients with adequate baseline sexual QoL (EPIC mean, 77 ± 8.3) at 3 years had better sexual function (p=0.03) with a spacer with a smaller difference in sexual bother score (p=0.1), which resulted in a higher EPIC score on the spacer arm (58 ±24.1 versus control 45 ± 24.4) meeting threshold for MID without statistical significance (p=0.07). There were statistically nonsignificant differences favouring spacer for the proportion of patients with MID and 2× MID declines in sexual QoL (with 53% versus 75% having an 11-point decline, p=0.064 and 41% versus 60% with a 22-point decline, p=0.11). At 3 years, more patients potent at baseline and treated with spacer had "erections sufficient for intercourse" (control 37.5% versus spacer 66.7%, p=0.046) as well as statistically higher scores on 7 of 13 items in the sexual domain (all p<0.05) (Hamstra 2018, Karsh 2018).

    Multi-domain changes (urinary, sexual and bowel): 46% of patients in the spacer group and 35% in the control group had no clinically detectable changes in any QoL domain at 3 years. 20% of patients in the control group had changes meeting the threshold for MID in all 3 domains compared with only 2.5% in the spacer group. Also, 12.5% of the control group had large changes (2xMID) in all 3 domains at 3 years compared with no patients in the spacer group (Hamstra 2017, 2018).

    Spacer absorption (using MRI) at 12 months: confirmed in all, except 2% (3/148) patients exhibiting small water density remnant cysts in unremarkable perirectal tissues (Mariados 2015).

    Safety

    Primary safety endpoint

    Spacer group %

    Control group %

    p value

    Rates of grade 1 or greater rectal or procedural adverse events at first 6 months

    34.2

    31.5

    0.7

    Acute rectal pain

    2.7

    11.1

    0.022

    No differences in acute rectal or urinary tract toxicities were seen in the first 3 months.

    Overall adverse and serious adverse events

    Spacer group %

    Control group %

    p value

    Adverse events

    96.6

    100

    NS

    Serious adverse events

    13.4

    15.1

    NS

    Spacer safety: there were no device related adverse events, rectal perorations, serious bleeding or infections in either group.

    Study 2 Miller 2020

    Study details

    Study type

    Systematic review and meta-analysis

    Country

    USA, UK, Switzerland and Germany

    Study search details

    Inception to September 2019; Databases searched: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, and Embase; no language or date restrictions applied. Supplemental searches were done in the directory of open access journals, Google scholar, and reference lists of included articles and relevant meta-analyses searched. If outcomes were unclear in studies, authors were contacted.

    Study population and number

    n=7 studies with 1,011 patients (486 patients who had a perirectal hydrogel spacer injection versus 525 patients who did not receive a spacer [controls] before prostate cancer radiotherapy).

    (1 randomised clinical trial [RCT] and 6 cohort studies [1 prospective, 4 retrospective and 1 with prospective enrolment in spacer group and retrospective enrolment in no spacer group])

    Clinical stages: localised or locally advanced prostate cancer (T1-T3)

    prostate-specific antigen levels ranged from 5.6 to 10.2 nanograms/ml

    Age and sex

    Mean age of 66 to 77 years.

    Study selection criteria

    Inclusion criteria: randomised clinical trials or cohort studies of patients who had the perirectal hydrogel spacer versus patients who had no spacer before radiotherapy for localised or locally advanced prostate cancer. Studies using external-beam RT that reported the percentage volume of the rectum receiving at least 70 Gy radiation (v70).

    Exclusion criteria: review articles, commentaries, letters, studies with no control or active control group, studies with fewer than 10 patients, pre-post dosimetric studies, studies that did not report a pre-specified outcome of this review, duplicate publications and unpublished or grey literature.

    Technique

    Intervention: Injection of a prostate-rectum spacer (absorbable polyethylene glycol hydrogel‑SpaceOAR system) between the Denonvilliers fascia and anterior rectal wall before radiotherapy.

    Radiotherapy protocols: EBRT with a total therapeutic dose ranging from 76 to 81 Gy (5 studies), BT with or without EBRT (1 study), or combination therapy (1 study).

    Follow up

    Median 26 months (range, 3 to 63 months).

    Conflict of interest/source of funding

    The study was funded by Boston Scientific and they were involved in design and interpretation of data, review and approval of manuscript.

    Authors served as consultants, and either received personal fees, grants, honoraria, travel expenses, and non-financial support from Boston scientific and other companies.

    Analysis

    Follow-up issues: follow up varied across studies and data was analysed as reported by individual studies. Some attrition bias was reported at late follow up in included studies.

    Study design issues: systematic review protocol was registered and was done according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) reporting guidelines. Comprehensive literature search was done, studies were screened and data extracted into a predesigned form, any disagreements were resolved by discussion. Multiple studies with overlapping patients were carefully assessed and included. Small numbers of nRCTs were included and were associated with risks of bias. A random-effects meta-analysis model was used for analysis of outcomes (rectal irradiation, rectal toxic effects, and bowel-related QoL). Heterogeneity was noted among study designs, patient characteristics, and radiotherapy protocols.

    Study population issues: patient characteristics and risk categories varied between studies.

    Other issues: One included study compared outcomes with the hydrogel spacer, biodegradable balloon, and no spacer treatment, but results of the balloon group were excluded from the analysis by the authors. Authors state that no studies of hydrogel spacer placement in patients receiving SBRT were eligible for inclusion in this review.

    Key efficacy findings

    Number of patients analysed: 1,011 patients (486 patients who had a perirectal hydrogel spacer injection versus 525 patients who did not receive a spacer [controls])

    Procedural outcomes

    Spacer placement success in spacer group (5 studies): the hydrogel spacer was successfully placed in 97.0% (95% CI, 94.4%-98.8%) of cases and failure reported in 3% cases. Causes of delivery failure were unsuccessful hydrodissection (n=5), inadvertent needle entry into the rectal lumen with no clinical sequelae (n=3), and unspecified cause (n=1).

    Perirectal separation distance (distance between the posterior prostate capsule and anterior rectal wall on axial mid-gland T2 weighted MRIs): the weighted mean perirectal separation distance after hydrogel spacer placement was 11.2 mm (95% CI, 10.1-12.3 mm [5 studies]).

    Rectal irradiation with perirectal hydrogel spacer versus without spacer (control)

    In a pooled analysis of 6 studies, patients who had the perirectal hydrogel spacer before EBRT had 66% less v70 rectal irradiation compared with controls- patients who did not receive perirectal hydrogel spacer (3,5% versus 10.4%; MD -6.5%; 95% CI -10.5% to 2.5%; I2=97%; p=0.001).

    Rectal toxicity

    Grade 2 or higher rectal toxic effects with versus without rectal hydrogel spacer

    Early grade ≥2: In a pooled analysis of 6 studies, the risk of early (≤3 months) grade 2 or higher rectal toxic effects was comparable and not statistically different between the hydrogel spacer group and control groups (4.5% versus 4.1%; RR, 0.82; 95% CI, 0.52-1.28; I2=0%; p=0.38).

    Late grade ≥2: In a pooled analysis of 4 studies, at late follow up (median, 38 months; range, 28-60 months), the risk of grade 2 or higher rectal toxic effects was 77% lower in the hydrogel spacer group compared to controls (1.5% versus 5.7%; RR, 0.23; 95% CI, 0.06-0.99; I2=24%; p=0.05).

    Grade ≥1 rectal toxicity with versus without perirectal hydrogel spacer

    Early grade ≥1: In a pooled analysis of 7 studies, the risk of early (≤3 months) grade 1 or higher rectal toxicity in patients treated with the hydrogel spacer was significantly lower (20.5% versus 29.5%; RR, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.58-0.91; I2= 0%; p=0.005).

    Late grade ≥1: In a pooled analysis of 5 studies, late grade ≥1 rectal toxicity (median, 40 months; range, 28-60 months) was significantly lower in the hydrogel spacer group (4.8% versus 16.2%; RR, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.22-0.65; I2= 0%; p < 0.001).

    Bowel quality of life (QoL) with versus without perirectal hydrogel spacer

    Changes in early bowel-related QoL: in a pooled analysis of 2 studies, change in early bowel quality of life (≤3 months) (on EPIC questionnaire reported on a 0 to 100 scale where higher values indicate better QoL) was not statistically different between the groups (MD, 0.2; 95% CI, –3.1 to 3.4; I2=21%; p=0.92).

    Change in late bowel-related QoL: in a pooled analysis of 2 studies, change in bowel-related QoL was greater in the hydrogel spacer group in late follow up (median, 48 months; range, 36-60 months) and exceeded the threshold for a minimal clinically importance difference (MD, 5.4; 95% CI, 2.8-8.0; I2=0%; p< 0.001). A 4-point change from baseline was considered a minimal clinically important difference.

    Key safety findings

    Procedural complications (defined as inability to inject the hydrogel spacer into the perirectal space or any complication, regardless of severity, occurring during the procedure).

    Mariados 2015

    mild and transient complications (did not delay radiotherapy)

    10%

    Whalley 2016

    Inadvertent injection into the rectal lumen (without adverse sequalae)

    3% (1/30)

    Pinkawa 2017, Taggar 2018

    None

    0

    The frequency of procedural complications was uncommon but reported inconsistently; it was not reported in 3 studies (Chao 2019, te Velde 2019, Wolf 2015).

    Study 3 Norwegian Institute of Public Health (NIPHNO) EUnetHTA 2020

    Study details

    Study type

    HTA

    Country

    Europe

    Study search details

    2010 to 2019; Databases searched for existing evidence syntheses (systematic reviews, HTAs) and primary studies include MEDLINE, AMED, Embase, Epistemonikos, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials.

    Also searched trial registry records at ClinicalTrials.gov and WHO ICTRP, Devices@FDA, the American Society of Clinical Oncology conference abstracts, and the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group clinical trials protocols.

    Considered information from clinical practice guidelines, information from a general literature search and input from clinical experts, and manufacturers.

    No language, design, publication restrictions applied.

    Study population and number

    n=2 prospective comparative studies including 298 patients with T1 and T2 stage localised prostate cancer)

    (1 RCT [SpaceOAR plus radiotherapy versus radiotherapy alone]) including 3 companion studies from the same clinical trial (NCT01538628) and

    1 non-randomised control trial (nRCT; hydrogel plus radiotherapy, balloon plus radiotherapy and radiotherapy alone)

    Age

    RCT: spacer group 66.4 years; control group: 67.7 years

    nRCT: not reported

    Study selection criteria

    Inclusion criteria: adults (>18yrs) who had prostate cancer (both localised and metastatic undergoing curative treatment); studies on biodegradable rectal spacers for prostate cancer radiotherapy compared with current pathway of care (radiotherapy); RCTs and prospective nRCTs or observational studies with a control group, prospective studies or registry studies, (for effectiveness), including prospective registry-based data (for safety); reporting effectiveness and safety outcomes, in all languages.

    Exclusion criteria: study designs other than those specified in inclusion criteria, studies with no outcome of interest, wrong population, no data on patients with spacers, or no full text.

    Technique

    Intervention: biodegradable rectal spacers for prostate cancer radiotherapy.

    2 different spacers used: transperineal hydrogel (SpaceOAR) or balloon (BioProtect) plus radiotherapy versus radiotherapy alone (EBRT)

    Radiotherapy protocols:

    RCT (n=222) IG-IMRT dose of 79.2 Gy at 1.8 Gy fractions, delivered to ≥98% of the planning target volume (PTV) and 100% of the clinical target volume, with the clinical target volume maximum of ≤110% of the prescription dose.

    nRCT: IMRT total dose of 75.85 Gy in daily fractional doses of 1.85 Gy prescribed to the 95% isodose using multi-segmental 7-field and shoot IMRT.

    Follow up

    RCT: 3,6,12,15 (Mariados 2015) and 36 months (Hamstra 2017).

    nRCT: up to 6 months (Wolf 2015)

    Conflict of interest/source of funding

    All authors, and stakeholders involved in the production of this assessment have declared they have no conflicts of interest according to the EUnetHTA declaration of interest (DOI) form.

    Analysis

    Follow-up issues: follow up varied across both studies and data was analysed as reported by individual studies. High attrition (>20%) was reported during long term follow up in the RCT.

    Study design issues: Comprehensive systematic literature search was done, 2 reviewers screened studies and data extracted into a predesigned form, any disagreements were resolved by discussion. Quality of studies was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool for RCT and the ROBINS-I tool (risk of bias in nRCTs– of Interventions) for nRCTs. Studies included were considered to be at high risk of bias (in the RCT methods were not well described, patients unblinded, selective reporting, and high attrition and in the nRCT selection bias, confounding, short follow up were reported). Same radiotherapy protocol was used in both studies. GRADE approach was used to rate the evidence for each outcome through a structured process.

    MID for the EPIC Short Form was used to identify MID standards for the outcomes and interpret the magnitude of effect sizes. Effect sizes were calculated for urinary and rectal toxicity (early and late) and QoL and for other outcomes, data was presented as reported in the individual studies. Multiple studies with overlapping patients were carefully assessed and included the study with final results. The 2 studies used the CTCAE grading system for grading adverse events.

    Study population issues: patient characteristics were not well defined in both studies. RCT included patients at clinical stage T1 and T2, individuals in the control group had severe co-morbidities and compulsory anticoagulation.

    Other issues: 15 trial registry records including biodegradable rectum spacers at different stages (completed, ongoing, recruiting) were identified by the authors but not were considered in this analysis. There were no comparative studies on hyaluronic acid.

    Key efficacy findings

    Number of patients analysed: 298 patients

    Rectal and urinary toxicity (n=2 studies assessed according to the CTCAE)

    Outcomes

    No of patients

    Relative effect (95% CI)

    Absolute effect (95% CI)

    GRADE

    Certainty of evidence

    Comments

    Spacer+

    radiotherapy

    Radiotherapy alone

    RCT (Mariados 2015, Hamstra 2017)

    Rectal toxicity

    N=148

    Spacer

    N=71

    no spacer

    Acute (grade 1)-3 months

    34

    20

    RR 0.77 (0.50 to 1.19), p=0.42

    94 fewer per 1000 (from 204 fewer to 78 more)

    Low 2-3

    Acute (grade ≥2) – 3 months

    6*

    3**

    RR 0.91 (0.23 to 3.5), p=0.89

    6 fewer per 1000 (from 47 fewer to 152 more)

    *no grade 3 or 4 toxicity reported

    **1 grade 3 case, no grade 4 reported

    Late (grade 1) – 15 months

    3

    4

    RR 0.34 (0.08 to 1.48), p=0.16

    40 fewer per 1000 (from 56 fewer to 29 more)

    Late (grade≥2)4 – 15 months

    0

    2*

    RR 0.15 (0.01 to 3.71), p=0.25

    13 fewer per 1000 (from 15 fewer to 41 more)

    1 grade 3 case, no grade 4 reported

    Cumulative (acute and late, grade 1) – median 3 years

    2

    4

    HR 0.24, 95% CI 0.06 to 0.97, p<0.03

    Not able to calculate

    Very low 2,3,5

    Loss to follow up 37% (spacer+RT n=54 and RT alone n=25)

    Cumulative (acute and late, grade ≥2) – median 3 years

    0

    3

    HR not available

    Not able to calculate

    nRCT (Wolf 2015)

    Acute rectal toxicity (grade 1) – 3 months

    5

    2

    RR 1.58 (0.34 to 7.60), p=0.55

    61 more per 1000 (from 69 fewer to 695 more)

    Very low

    hydrogel versus RT – no grade 2-3 toxicity

    5

    RR 1.64 (0.35 to 7.60), p=0.52

    67 more per 1000 (from 68 fewer to 695 more)

    Very Low3,6

    Balloon versus RT – no grade 2-3 toxicity

    Outcomes

    No of patients

    Relative effect (95% CI)

    Absolute effect (95% CI)

    GRADE

    Comments

    Spacer+

    radiotherapy

    Radiotherapy alone

    RCT (Mariados 2015, Hamstra 2017)

    Urinary toxicity

    N=148

    N=71

    Acute (grade 1)-3 months

    78

    33

    RR 1.03 (0.87 to 1.21), p=0.74

    25 more per 1000 (from 107 fewer to 173 more)

    Low 2-3

    Acute (grade ≥2) – 3 months

    56

    32

    RR 0.97 (0.81 to 1.18), p=0.79

    25 fewer per 1000 (from 156 fewer to 148 more)

    *no grade 3 or 4 toxicity reported

    Late (grade 1) – 15 months

    4

    3

    RR 0.65 (0.15 to 2.85), p=0.57

    15 fewer per 1000 (from 36 fewer to 75 more)

    Late (grade ≥2) – 15 months

    10*

    3*

    RR 1.57 (0.44 to 5.53), p=0.47

    25 more per 1000 (from 23 fewer to 196 more)

    *no grade 3 or 4 toxicity reported

    Cumulative (acute and late, grade 1) – median 3 years

    4

    7

    HR 0.36 (0.12 to 1.1), p=0.046

    Not able to calculate

    Very low 2,3,5

    Loss to follow up 37% (spacer+RT n=54 and RT alone n=25)

    Cumulative (acute and late, grade ≥2) – median 3 years

    NR

    NR

    HR 1.22 (0.40 to 3.72), p=0.7

    Not able to calculate

    Genitourinary toxicity (Wolf 2015)

    n=30 hydrogel, n=29 balloon spacer)

    n=19 radiotherapy alone

    Acute – grade 2

    11

    5

    RR 1.39 (0.57 to 3.38), p=0.46

    103 more per 1000 (from 113 fewer to 626 more)

    Very Low 3,6

    hydrogel or Balloon versus RT – no grade 3 toxicity

    6

    6 RR 0.78 (0.27 to 2.12), p=0.64

    58 fewer per 1000 (from 192 to 295 more)

    QoL

    Outcomes

    No of patients

    Relative effect (95% CI)

    Absolute effect (95% CI)

    GRADE

    Comments

    Spacer+

    radiotherapy

    Radiotherapy

    RCT (Mariados 2015, Hamstra 2017)

    Bowel QoL assessed with EPIC 0-100 – greater values are better

    Summary Score: results suggest SpaceOAR +RT may improve bowel QoL (p=0.002) over the entire follow-up period (1 study, 220 participants; very low certainty of evidence) but the evidence is uncertain.

    Minimal Clinical Difference – 5-point decline

    Bowel QoL 3 months

    49% (73/148)

    46%(32/71)

    RD 0.05, 95% CI -0.09 to 0.19

    5 more people in intervention reported 5-point decline

    Low 2,3

    Bowel QoL 15 months

    24%(36/148)

    34% (24/71)

    RD -0.09, 95% CI -0.22 to 0.04

    9 less people in intervention reported 5-point decline

    Bowel QoL 36 months

    14% (13/94)

    41% (19/46)

    OR 0.28, 95% CI 0.13 to 0.63*

    27% less patients in the intervention experiencing 5-point decline

    Very low 2, 3, 5

    Minimal Clinical Difference X2 – 10 point decline

    Bowel QoL 3 months

    34% (50/148)

    32% (23/71)

    RD 0.02, 95% CI -0.11 to 0.15

    2 more people in the intervention reported 10-point decline

    Low

    Bowel QoL 15 months

    11%(17/148)

    21% (15/71)

    RD -0.09, 95% CI -0.20 to 0.01

    10 fewer people in the intervention reported a 10-point decline

    Low 2,3

    Bowel QoL 36 months

    5% (5/94)

    16% (7/46)

    OR 0.30, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.83

    16% fewer patients in the intervention reported 10-point decline

    Very low 2,3,5

    Urinary QoL - assessed with EPIC 0-100 – greater values are better

    Summary Score: Results suggest SpaceOAR may have little to no effect on urinary QoL (p=.13) over the study follow-up period (1 study, 220 participants; very low certainty of evidence); the evidence is very uncertain.

    Minimal Clinical Difference – 6-point decline

    Urinary QoL 3 months

    65%(97/148)

    60% (42/71)

    RD 0.07, 95% CI -0.07 to 0.21

    7 more people in the intervention reported 6 point decline

    Low 2,3

    Urinary QoL 15 months

    22% (32/148)

    21% (15/71)

    RD 0.01, 95% CI -0.11 to 0.12

    There was no difference in the number of patients reporting 6 point decline

    Urinary QoL 36 months

    30% (28/94)

    17% (8/46)

    OR 0.41, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.95

    13% fewer participants in the intervention reported 6 point decline

    Very low 2,3,5

    Minimal Clinical Difference X2 – 10-point decline

    Urinary QoL 3 months

    47% (70/148)

    49% (34/71)

    RD 0.00, 95% CI -0.14 to 0.14*

    There was no difference in the number of patients reporting 12-point decline

    Urinary QoL 15 months

    9% (14/148)

    12% (9/71)

    RD -0.03, 95% CI -0.12 to 0.06

    3 fewer patients in the intervention reported 12-point decline

    Urinary QoL 36 months

    23% (22/94)

    8% (4/46)

    OR 0.31, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.85*

    15% fewer participants in the intervention reported 12-point decline

    Sexual QoL – assessed with EPIC 0-100 – greater values are better

    Summary Score: results suggest SpaceOAR may have little to no effect on sexual QoL (p=0.6) over the entire study period (1 study, 140 participants; very low certainty of evidence), but the evidence is very uncertain.

    36 months

    94

    46

    Not estimable

    Sexual composite over time p=0.59

    Very low 2,3,5

    Rectal dose

    outcomes

    No of patients

    Relative effect (95% CI)

    Absolute effect (95% CI)

    GRADE

    Comments

    Spacer+

    radiotherapy

    Radiotherapy

    RCT (Mariados 2015, Hamstra 2017)

    rV70 Mean ± SD

    N=148

    N=71

    -

    -

    Low 2,3

    97%intervention patients reached ≧25% reduction in rV70

    nRCT (Wolf 2015)

    Isodose

    Hydrogel 30 Balloon 29

    radiotherapy alone 19

    95% isodose

    38% and 63% less

    g-gel, b-balloon c control

    10.9 cm2-g

    17.6 cm2-c

    6.6 cm2-b

    24% and 42% less

    10% and 22% less

    Very low 2,3,5

    85% isodose 18.3 cm2-g

    24.1 cm2-c

    13.2 cm2-b

    60% isodose 34.4 cm2-g 38.3 cm2-c 29.7 cm2-b

    Distance between rectum and prostate – baseline, post-insertion, 3 months

    RCT (Mariados 2015, Hamstra 2017)

    Mean perirectal distance (mm)

    149

    -

    Not estimable

    Not estimable

    Low 2,3

    1.6±2.2 mm, baseline

    12.6±3.9 mm, after insertion

    9±5.9 mm at 3 months

    PSA relapse – baseline, 12 and 15 months

    Nanograms/ml – 12 months and 15 months

    148

    71

    Not estimable

    Not estimable

    Low 2,3

    Values only presented as means (no SD available), no data for 36 months available.

    GRADE Working Group grades of evidence

    High quality: Further research is very unlikely to change our confidence in the estimate of effect.

    Moderate quality: Further research is likely to have an important impact on our confidence in the estimate of effect and may change the estimate.

    Low quality: Further research is very likely to have an important impact on our confidence in the estimate of effect and is likely to change the estimate.

    Very low quality: We are very uncertain about the estimate.

    1 Assessed according to CTCAE v4

    2 Downgraded one level due to limitations in design (high risk of bias) (e.g. blinding, selective reporting)

    3 Downgraded one level due to imprecision (one or 2 small studies)

    4 Grade 2 is presented in Mariados' publication as '>2' and in Hamstra's as '≥2'; we have assumed this is ≥2 and reported as such

    5 Downgraded one level due to limitations in design (large loss to follow up without imputations) 6 Downgraded one level due to limitations in design (high risk of bias) (e.g. bias due to confounding, selection of participants, bias of measurement of outcome)

    Key safety findings

    Outcomes

    No of patients

    Relative effect (95% CI)

    Absolute effect (95% CI)

    GRADE

    Comments

    Spacer+

    radiotherapy

    Radiotherapy alone

    1 RCT (Mariados 2015 and 5 companion studies) and 1 nRCT (Wolf 2015)

    Deaths related to adverse events, grade 5

    207

    91

    There was no (device) death related to adverse events reported in these studies

    1 RCT and 1 nRCT

    Adverse events, grades 3-4

    207

    91

    There was no (device) grade 3-4 related to adverse events reported in these studies

    Adverse events grades 1-2 1

    148

    71

    Procedural adverse events

    no unanticipated SpaceOAR related adverse events.

    10% of the spacer patients had mild transient procedural adverse events (perineal discomfort and others)

    n=10 events requiring no medication*

    grade 2 events treated with medication included mild lower urinary tract symptoms and hypotension, and moderate perineal pain.

    no implant infections, rectal wall ulcerations or other more serious complications.

    SpaceOAR Hydrogel procedural rectal wall infiltration in 6% (n=9).

    2/149 spacer patients had no SpaceOAR Hydrogel present after application: hydrogel injected beyond the prostate in 1 patient, no hydrogel injected in the other due to inadvertent needle penetration of the rectal wall requiring study-mandated termination of the procedure.

    Low 2,3

    The information reported in the RCT and companions studies: Mariados 2015, Pieczonka 2015, Karsh and Fisher Valuck 2017

    *Haematospermia, anorectal pressure, haematuria, tight pain, discomfort while sitting, perineal pain, rectal pain, rectal bleeding (attributed to preoperative enema), constipation and flatulence (1 each).

    Safety from other previous papers found by authors

    Hydrogel spacer related adverse events:

    A review of procedure related adverse events in the MAUDE database from January 2015 to March 2019 suggests that there were 22 unique reports discussing 25 patient cases, with an increasing number of reports each year up to 2018. Authors mentioned reported complications include acute pulmonary embolism, severe anaphylaxis, prostatic abscess and sepsis, purulent perineal drainage, rectal wall erosion, and recto-urethral fistula (see study 5 for further details). Authors state that a recent letter in response to this study suggests that 'the increase in the number of medical device reports in MAUDE over time is normal and proportionate to device usage and the rate of reports has remained relatively constant over time, ranging from 0.3 to 0.6 per 1000 SpaceOAR cases performed' (Babayan 2020).

    A rectal ulcer, 1 cm in diameter (causing frequent rectal bleeding, mucus discharge and bowel movements) was reported in a case report of 1 patient 2 months after hydrogel injection. This had resolved without further intervention by 3 months. Digital rectal examination at 6 months revealed a healed ulcer, with only a non-tender slit in the anterior rectal wall. At subsequent examinations over 3 years, there was no recurrence of bowel symptoms (Teh 2014).

    Inadvertent rectal wall injection (with hydrogel) resulting in focal rectal mucosal necrosis and bladder perforation was reported after the procedure in 1 patient in a case series of 52 patients. This resolved with no sequelae (Uhl 2014).

    Infections (bacterial peritonitis in 2 patients and bacterial epididymitis in 1 patient) were reported in 3% (3/100) of patients injected with a hydrogel spacer in a retrospective comparative case series of 200 patients. The bacterial peritonitis occurred after prostate biopsies. All 3 infections resolved with antibiotic therapy. No infections were reported in the 100 patients treated with high dose rate brachytherapy without hydrogel (Storm 2014).

    Balloon spacer related adverse events: a case series of 27 patients (Gez 2013) reported the following adverse events during balloon insertion and radiotherapy: penile bleeding and acute urinary retention (needed catheterisation, which resolved within a few hours) during balloon insertion, dysuria and nocturia (grade 1-2). Other events reported during radiotherapy in the same case series included diarrhoea, mild proctitis, and blood in the faeces, constipation, erectile dysfunction, itching, fatigue and decreased urine flow.

    Study 4 Armstrong N 2021

    Study details

    Study type

    Systematic review

    Country

    UK, USA and Germany

    Study search details

    Search period: inception to May 2020; databases searched: MEDLINE, Embase, PubMed, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR), Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE), Health Technology Assessment Database (HTA), KSR Evidence, Econlit (EBSCO), and NHS EED (CRD). HTA agency websites, clinical trials registers, conference abstracts databases and reference lists of included articles were also searched. No restrictions on language or publication status were applied.

    Study population and number

    19 studies (3,622 patients who had a perirectal hydrogel spacer versus patients who did not receive a spacer [controls] before prostate cancer radiotherapy).

    1 RCT (10 references), 18 comparative nRCTs.

    Age

    patients between 65 to 75 years

    Study selection criteria

    Inclusion criteria: RCTs and nRCTs with patients receiving radiotherapy (all types) for localised or locally advanced prostate cancer with or without rectal hydrogel spacer; reporting a number of outcomes including radiation dose, toxicity and QoL.

    Technique

    Intervention: Injection of a prostate-rectum spacer (absorbable polyethylene glycol hydrogel‑SpaceOAR system) between the Denonvilliers fascia and anterior rectal wall before RT.

    Comparator (control):no spacer

    Radiotherapy protocols: different RT modalities used.

    1. EBRT- IG-IMRT- 1 RCT

    2. EBRT, BT and combinations thereof (in 18 comparative nRCTs):

    • non-hypofractionated IMRT-7 studies,

    • ultra-hypofractionation - SBRT-2 studies,

    • PBT 1 study,

    • HDR BT monotherapy (1 study),

    • BT plus EBRT combination-7 studies (HDR BT +EBRT 3 studies, LDR BT +EBRT 4 studies)

    Follow up

    Varied across studies

    Conflict of interest/source of funding

    4 authors worked for a company which received funding for the project from Boston Scientific, few authors are employed by Boston Scientific, some received honoraria for advisory boards, travel expenses to medical meetings and 1 served as a consultant for different companies.

    Analysis

    Follow-up issues: adequate follow up in most studies.

    Study design issues: systematic review protocol was registered and was done according to the PRISMA reporting guidelines, the Cochrane Handbook and the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination. Comprehensive literature search was done, 2 reviewers selected studies, extracted data and quality assessed the studies using Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool for RCT and Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist for cohort studies. The included studies were mainly non-RCT of low quality and in many studies patients were recruited to either the intervention or comparator at the same time. Treatment in nRCTs is usually allocated based on clinician or patient preference but 3 studies used historical matched controls. Studies with a range of radiotherapy modalities used in clinical practice are included. Dosing is measured in different ways. Because of the heterogeneity of studies a narrative synthesis was done.

    Study population issues: patient characteristics and risk categories varied between studies.

    Other issues: authors did not find any hypofractionated radiotherapy studies.

    Key efficacy findings

    • Number of patients analysed: 19 studies (3,622 patients)

    Rectal dosimetry

    1 RCT Mariados 2015 (hydrogel spacer versus no spacer)

    Measures of dosimetry

    With spacer

    Without spacer

    Absolute reduction

    Relative reduction

    Rectum

    V50

    9.6

    20.8

    11.2

    53.9

    V60

    5.3

    15.4

    10.1

    65.6

    V70

    2.3

    10.5

    8.2

    78.0

    V80

    0.1

    4.0

    3.9

    97.3

    Pre and post hydrogel spacer

    Measures of dosimetry

    Baseline dose Gy (mean±SD)

    Post spacer dose Gy (mean±SD)

    % Change in dose from baseline, p value

    Bladder

    V70

    11.3

    11

    NR

    Rectum

    V50

    25.7±11.1

    12.2±8.7

    52.3, p=<0.0001

    V60

    18.4±7.7

    6.8±5.5

    62.9, p<0.0001

    V70

    12.4±5.4

    3.3±3.2

    73.3, p<0.0001

    V80

    4.6±3.1

    0.6±0.9

    86.3, p<0.0001

    (13 nRCTs hydrogel spacer versus no spacer)

    EBRT

    Study, n

    Clinical stage, risk status

    Measures of dosimetry

    With spacer

    Mean/median

    Without spacer

    Mean/median

    P value

    Pinkawa 2017 IMRT (n=167)

    T1-T3

    Low to high risk

    V70 %

    20

    32

    <0.01

    V90 %

    4

    13

    <0.01

    Te Velde 2019 IMRT (n=125)

    T1-T3

    Low to high risk

    V40 %

    25.9

    33.3

    <0.0001

    V75%

    2.1

    7.4

    <0.0001

    V65%

    5.2

    12.6

    <0.0001

    Whalley 2016 IMRT (n=140)

    T1-T3

    Intermediate/ high risk

    V40 %

    22.9

    32

    <0.01

    V65%

    5.3

    13.5

    <0.01

    Navaratnam 2020

    PBT (n=72)

    T-1-T3

    V70 %

    NR

    NR

    -

    V75 %

    NR

    NR

    -

    Fried 2017

    SBRT (n=94)

    Low/intermediate risk

    D10 Gy

    26.66

    30.44

    0.000

    D50 Gy

    10.9

    11.4

    0.47

    BT

    Baghwala 2019

    HDR BT (n=36)

    Low/intermediate risk

    V75 cc

    0.02

    0.7

    <0.05

    V90 cc

    >92

    NR

    <0.05

    HDR BT in combination with EBRT

    Chao 2019 HDR BT+IG-IMRT (n=97)

    T1-T3 Intermediate/

    high risk

    V40%

    4.6

    10.7

    <0.001

    V75%

    0

    0.55

    <0.001

    V80%

    0

    0.21

    <0.001

    Wu 2018 HDR BT +/- EBRT (n=54)

    T-T3

    V40 cc

    8.11

    9.38

    0.16

    V75

    <0.005

    0.12

    <0.0005

    V80

    <0.005

    0.01

    0.007

    V90

    NR

    <0.005

    0.1

    Saigal 2019

    HDR BT + EBRT (n=117)

    NR

    D1 Gy

    35.3

    54.6

    <0.05

    D90

    100.1

    101.3

    0.354

    LDR BT in combination with EBRT

    Morita 2020 LDR BT+IMRT (n=300)

    T1-T4

    Very low to very high

    V100 cc

    0.026

    0.318

    <0.001

    V150

    0.001

    0.025

    <0.001

    Patel 2018

    LDR BT + EBRT (n=57)

    NR

    V50

    0.53

    .21

    <0.001

    V100

    0.0001

    0.25

    <0.001

    Taggar 2018

    LDR BT+EBRT (n=210)

    T1-T3

    V100

    0.01

    0.07

    0

    Liu 2020

    LDR BT +/- EBRT (n=81)

    Low/intermediate

    risk

    D2 Gy

    -25.1

    5

    <0.0001

    D0.1

    -65.7

    -1

    <0.0001

    Toxicity outcomes

    1 RCT Mariados 2015 (hydrogel spacer versus no spacer)

    Type of adverse event

    Follow up

    With spacer

    Without spacer

    P value

    OR (95% CI)

    Rectal or procedure related adverse events

    6 months

    34.2%

    31.5%

    0.7

    Rectal toxicity late

    3 to 15 months

    Grade 1+

    2.03 (3/148)

    6.94 (5/71)

    0.044

    0.28 (0.06,1.19)

    Grade 2+

    0

    1.39 (1/71)

    NE

    1

    2.03 (3/148)

    5.63 (4/71)

    0.35 90.08, 1.59)

    2

    0

    0

    NE

    3

    0

    1.41 (1/71)

    4

    0

    0

    Grade>1

    36 months

    2.0%

    9.2%

    0.028

    Grade>2

    36 months

    0

    5.7%

    0.012

    Rectal toxicity acute

    3 months

    Grade 1+

    27.03 (40/148)

    31.94 (23/72)

    0.525

    0.79 (0.43,1.46)

    Grade 2+

    4.05 (6/148)

    4.17 (3/72)

    0.97 (0.24,4)

    1

    22.97 (34/148)

    27.78 (20/72)

    0.78 (0.41,1.47)

    2

    4.05 (6/148)

    2.78 (2/72)

    1.48 (0.29, 7.52)

    3

    0

    1.39 (1/72)

    NE

    4

    0

    0

    Urinary toxicity late

    3 to 15 months

    Grade 1+

    9.46 (14/148)

    8.33 (6/71)

    0.622

    1.15 (0.42, 3.13)

    Grade 2+

    6.76 (10/148)

    4.17 (3/71)

    1.67 (0.44, 6.25)

    1

    2.70 94/148)

    4.23 (3/71)

    0.63 (0.14, 2.89)

    2

    6.76 (10/148)

    4.23 (3/71)

    1.64 90.44, 6.16)

    3

    0

    0

    NE

    4

    0

    0

    Urinary toxicity acute

    3 months

    Grade 1+

    90.54 (134/148)

    90.28 (65/72)

    0.488

    1.03 (0.4, 2.68)

    Grade 2+

    37.84 (56/148)

    44.44 (32/72)

    0.76 (0.43, 1.35)

    1

    52.70 (78/148)

    45.83 (33/72)

    1.32 (0.75, 2.32)

    2

    37.84 (56/148)

    44.44 (32/72)

    0.76 (0.43, 1.35)

    3

    0

    0

    NE

    4

    0

    0

    nRCTs (hydrogel spacer versus no spacer, 7 studies)

    Study

    Adverse event

    (Grade)

    Follow up (months)

    With spacer % (n)

    Without spacer % (n)

    P value

    OR (95% CI)

    EBRT

    Te Velde 2019 IMRT (n=125)

    Diarrhoea (grade 1)

    During radiotherapy

    13.8% (9/65)

    31.7 (19/60)

    0.02

    0.34 (0.14,0.84)

    3 months

    4.6%

    5%

    1

    0.92 (0.18,4.72)

    36 months

    1.7%

    7.3%

    0.192

    0.22 (0.03,1.86)

    Proctitis (grade 1)

    During radiotherapy

    9.2

    13.3

    0.6

    0.66 (0.22,2.03)

    3 months

    1.5

    5

    0.3

    0.29 (0.03,2.86)

    36 months

    1.7

    3.6

    0.606

    0.46 (0.04,4.88)

    Proctitis Grade (2)

    During radiotherapy

    4.6

    1.7

    0.6

    2.79 (0.28,27.56)

    3 months

    0

    0

    1

    36 months

    0

    3.6

    0.227

    Faecal incontinence (grade 1)

    During radiotherapy

    3.1

    3.3

    1

    0.94 (0.13,6.87)

    3 months

    0

    1.7

    0.5

    36 months

    0

    0

    Haemorrhoids (grade 1)

    During radiotherapy

    23.1

    20

    0.8

    1.2 (0.51,2.83)

    3 months

    3.1

    11.7

    0.09

    0.24 (0.05,1.21)

    36 months

    5

    7.3

    0.708

    0.67 (0.15,2.98)

    Haemorrhoids (grade 2)

    During radiotherapy

    4.6

    3.3

    1

    3 months

    0

    0

    36 months

    1.7

    1.8

    1

    0.94 (0.06,14.5)

    Whalley 2016

    IMRT (n=140)

    Rectal toxicity late -grade 1

    Median 26-28 months

    16.6 (5/30)

    41.8 (46/110)

    0.04

    0.28 (0.1,0.78)

    Grade 2

    3.3 (1/30)

    3.6 (4/110)

    NR

    0.91 (0.1,8.49)

    Rectal toxicity acute -grade 1

    43 (13/30)

    50.6 (56/110)

    0.74 (0.33,1.66)

    Grade 2

    0

    4.5 (5/110)

    Wolf 2015

    IMRT (n=78)

    Rectal toxicity acute-grade 1

    NR

    16.6

    9

    NR

    Genitourinary toxicity- grade 1

    12.5

    21

    Grade 2

    36.6

    28.5

    Any toxicity acute -grade 3

    0

    0

    Navaratnam 2020

    PBT (n=72)

    Rectal toxicity-any -grade 1

    During radiotherapy

    35.3 (18/51)

    9.5 (2/21)

    0.061

    5.2 (1.09,24.89)

    Median 8.7 to 10.3 months

    7.7 (3/39)

    0 (0/14)

    NR

    Grade 2

    During radiotherapy

    2 (1/51)

    0 (0/21)

    NR

    Median 8.7 to 10.3 months

    0 (0/39)

    7.1 (1/14)

    Zelefsky 2019

    SBRT (n=551)

    GI toxicity acute (grade 2+)

    NR

    1 (269)

    2 (282)

    0.09

    0.33 (0.07,1.55)

    GI toxicity late (grade 2+)

    1

    6

    0.01

    0.16 (0.05,0.48)

    GU toxicity acute (grade 2+)

    9

    12

    0.19

    0.73 (0.42,1.26)

    GU toxicity late (grade 2+)

    15

    32

    <0.001

    0.38 (0.25,0.57)

    HDR BT in combination with EBRT

    Chao 2019

    BT+IG-IMRT (n=97)

    GI toxicity acute (grade 2)

    3 months

    0 (0/32)

    1.5 (1/65)

    0.48

    Grade1+

    13.3

    30.8

    0.05

    0.34 (0.11,1.11)

    GI toxicity late (grade 1)

    0

    7.7

    0.11

    GU toxicity acute (grade 2)

    0

    1.5

    0.48

    Grade 1+

    83.3

    92.3

    0.22

    0.42 (0.11,1.56)

    GU toxicity late (grade 3)

    3.3

    6.2

    0.57

    0.52 (0.06,4.82)

    Grade 1+

    46.7

    43.1

    0.74

    1.16 (0.49,2.71)

    Grade 2+

    3.3

    7.7

    0.4

    0.41 (0.05,3.66)

    LDR BT alone or in combination with EBRT

    Taggar 2018

    LDR BT/LDR BT+/- EBRT (n=210)

    Any rectal GI toxicity

    NR

    20.3 (15/74)

    24.3 (33/136)

    0.95

    0.79 (0.4,1.58)

    Taggar 2018

    LDR BT monotherapy

    Diarrhoea

    7.7 (2/26)

    15.9 (7/44)

    NR

    0.44 (0.08,2.31)

    Proctitis

    0 (/26)

    0 (/44)

    NR

    Rectal bleeding

    0 (/26)

    6.8 (/44)

    NR

    Rectal discomfort

    15.7 (/26)

    0 (/44)

    NR

    Taggar 2018

    LDR BT monotherapy (salvage for recurrent PC)

    Diarrhoea

    NR

    12.5 (1/11)

    5.3 (1/19)

    NR

    2.55 (0.14,45.36)

    Proctitis

    0

    0

    NR

    Rectal bleeding

    0

    5.3

    NR

    Rectal discomfort

    0

    0

    NR

    Taggar 2018

    LDR BT+EBRT combination therapy

    Diarrhoea

    NR

    12.5 (5/42)

    4.1 (3/73)

    NR

    3.34 (0.76,14.76)

    Proctitis

    0

    5.5

    Rectal bleeding

    5

    19.2

    0.22 (0.05,1.03)

    Rectal discomfort

    5

    0

    Health related QoL outcomes

    1 RCT Mariados 2015 (hydrogel spacer versus no spacer)

    EPIC dimension

    Follow up (months)

    With spacer

    Without spacer

    Mean difference

    P value

    Bowel domain

    3

    -7.5

    -6.2

    NR

    36

    0.5

    -5.3

    5.8, p<0.05

    Urinary domain

    3

    -11.5

    -11.2

    NR

    36

    0.6

    -3.3

    3.9, p=0.04

    Authors definition

    OR (95% CI), p value

    10-point decline in bowel QoL

    15

    11.6

    21.6

    0.49 (0.21, 1.11)

    P=0.087

    36

    5

    21

    0.3 (0.11, 0.83)

    P=0.02

    10-point decline in urinary QoL

    6

    8.8

    22.2

    0.27 (0.11, 0.64)

    P=0.003

    12-point decline in urinary QoL

    36

    8

    23

    0.31 (0.11, 0.85)

    P<0.03

    5-point decline in bowel QoL

    14

    41

    0.28 90.13, 0.63)

    P=0.002

    6-point decline in urinary QoL

    17

    30

    0.41 (0.18, 0.95)

    P<0.05

    Patients experiencing MID declines in all 3 QoL domains (bowel, urinary, sexual)

    36

    2.5

    20

    NR

    P=0.002

    Decline of all 11 or more points in EPIC sexual score

    53

    75

    NR, P=0.064

    Potent patients at baseline retaining erections sufficient for intercourse

    66.7

    37.5

    NR, =0.046

    MID = minimally important differences in the EPIC summary scores were evaluated according to previously published thresholds: bowel (5 points), urinary (6 points), sexual (11 points), and vitality/hormonal (5 points).

    nRCTs (hydrogel spacer versus no spacer, 4 studies)

    Study

    EPIC outcome

    Follow up (months)

    With spacer,

    Mean change from baseline

    Without spacer, mean change from baseline

    p value

    Patel 2018

    EBRT + LDR BT (n=57)

    Bowel function score

    3 months

    Median: 0.00, IQR: -8.93 to 0.89

    Median: -6.25, IQR: -12.95 to 0

    0.312

    6 months

    Median: 0.00, IQR: -8.92 to 0

    Median: -3.57, IQR: -9.82 to 0

    0.650

    Pinkawa 2012

    IMRT (n=72)

    Urinary function

    Last day radiotherapy

    -10

    -10

    NR

    2-3 months

    -1

    -5

    Urinary bother score

    Last day radiotherapy

    -17

    -18

    2-3 months

    -4

    -6

    Bowel function

    Last day radiotherapy

    -15

    -14

    2-3 months

    -3

    -3

    Bowel bother score

    Last day radiotherapy

    -16

    -17

    2-3 months

    -2

    -6

    Sexual function

    Last day radiotherapy

    -15

    -10

    2-3 months

    -5

    -9

    Sexual bother score

    Last day radiotherapy

    -20

    -18

    2-3 months

    -11

    -15

    Hormonal function

    Last day radiotherapy

    -3

    -6

    2-3 months

    -1

    -2

    Hormonal bother score

    Last day radiotherapy

    -3

    -2

    2-3 months

    -2

    -1

    Pinkawa 2016

    IMRT (n=202)

    Bowel bother score

    Last day radiotherapy

    -14

    -18

    NR

    2 months

    -3

    -6

    17 months

    0

    -7

    Sexual bother score

    Last day radiotherapy

    -6

    -9

    2 months

    -12

    -19

    17 months

    -12

    -17

    Urinary bother score

    Last day radiotherapy

    -18

    -21

    2 months

    -14

    -17

    17 months

    1

    2

    Pinkawa 2017

    IMRT (n=167)

    Urinary function

    End of radiotherapy

    -10

    -13

    NR

    2 months

    -2

    -4

    >12 months

    1

    -

    Bowel function

    End of radiotherapy

    -11

    -14

    NR

    2 months

    -4

    -5

    >12 months

    0

    -5

    <0.01

    Sexual function

    End of radiotherapy

    -12

    -10

    NR

    2 months

    -6

    -8

    >12 months

    -6

    -

    Hormone function

    End of radiotherapy

    -5

    -7

    NR

    2 months

    -3

    -4

    >12 months

    2

    -

    Bowel bother score

    18 months

    -1

    -7

    0.13

    60 months

    -1

    -6

    0.99

    Sexual bother score

    18 months

    -13

    -18

    0.28

    60 months

    -21

    -28

    0.77

    Urinary bother score

    18 months

    2

    3

    0.49

    60 months

    0

    3

    0.22

    There were no studies reporting QoL in EBRT+ HDR BT, BT monotherapy or hypofractionated EBRT.

    Study 5 Vaggers S 2021

    Study details

    Study type

    Systematic review

    Country

    UK

    Study search details

    Search period: January 2013 to December 2019; databases searched: MEDLINE, Embase, PubMed, CINAHL, and Cochrane library Google scholar, and reference lists of included articles were also searched.

    Study population and number

    13 studies: (9 retrospective case series and 4 case reports of less than 10 patients)

    n=1208 patients (671 patients who had a perirectal hydrogel spacer injection versus 537 patients who did not receive a spacer [controls] before prostate cancer brachytherapy).

    Age

    Not reported

    Study selection criteria

    Inclusion criteria: English-language articles, randomised and non-randomised studies of patients with localised or locally advanced prostate cancer receiving brachytherapy with or without PEG hydrogel spacer (salvage and primary treatment); reporting a number of outcomes including radiation dose, prostate-rectum separation, toxicity and technique for hydrogel insertion.

    Studies of more than 10 patients evaluated for efficacy and less than 10 patients reviewed for only procedure related complications.

    Exclusion criteria: case reports, review articles and editorials, non-English-language studies, animal and laboratory studies.

    Technique

    Intervention: under ultrasound guidance a needle is inserted into perineum. Hydrodissection of the potential space is done first and then a prostate-rectum spacer (absorbable polyethylene glycol hydrogel) is injected posterior to the Denonvilliers fascia and anterior to the rectal wall at the level between mid-gland and apex of the prostate (4 studies used DuraSeal off label and 5 used SpaceOAR since 2017).

    Comparator (control):no hydrogel spacer(in 6 studies)

    Radiotherapy protocols: LDR or HDR BT alone or in combination with EBRT

    • LDR BT monotherapy ( in 2 studies),

    • BT plus EBRT combination (in 7 studies: HDR BT +EBRT in 5, LDR BT +EBRT in 2)

    All LDR or HDR BT start with seed insertion followed by spacer insertion and subsequent IMRT.

    Follow up

    Varied across studies (range 6 to 60 months)

    Conflict of interest/source of funding

    Authors state that there is no potential conflict of interest.

    Analysis

    Follow-up issues: adequate follow up in some studies, 3 studies did not report follow up period.

    Study design issues: systematic review protocol was registered and was done according to the PRISMA reporting guidelines and the Cochrane methodology. Comprehensive literature search was done, 2 reviewers selected studies, extracted data but quality assessment of studies was not done. The included studies were mainly retrospective nRCTs of low quality and only 4 studies compared with controls. Studies were heterogenous both in treatment method and type of spacer used therefore a narrative synthesis was done. Genitourinary complications were not analysed by authors. 2 papers included in this study reported on the same patient group (Chao 2019).

    Study population issues: patient characteristics and risk categories varied between studies.

    Key efficacy findings

    • Number of patients analysed: 13 studies (9 case series and 4 case reports or case series of less than 10 patients)

    Mean prostate-rectum separation, acute and late GI complications

    Study details

    Mean follow up/scoring system

    Mean prostate-rectum separation (mm)

    Rectal dosimetric reduction/percentage dose reduction^

    Acute GI toxicity (spacer versus no spacer)

    Late GI toxicity (spacer versus no spacer)

    Failure rate

    Mahal 2014

    Salvage LDR BT; prior pelvic irradiation (n=11)

    DuraSeal spacer

    15.7 months/

    EPIC questionnaire

    10.9 in patients with prior BT

    7.7 in patients with prior EBRT

    Median V75% (cc): 0.07

    Grade 1: 0%

    Grade 2: 9% (n=1 fistula)

    Grade >3: 0

    Grade 1 or 2:

    36% (4/11)

    Grade 3 or 4: 9% (n=1 patient developed prostatorectal

    fistula requiring a diverting colostomy and an interposition rotational gracilis muscle

    flap)

    16 months: 26% (3/11)

    bowel QoL change

    27.2%

    Heikkila 2014

    LDR BT

    (n=10)

    DuraSeal spacer

    -

    10

    Rectal D2 cc

    64±13 Gy with gel versus

    95±13 Gy without gel

    (p=0.005)/

    (32.6%)

    1 patient reported a sensation of pressure in the rectum.

    1 patient felt a sudden need for defecation.

    -

    0%

    Wu 2017 HDR BT: HDR BT+EBRT

    Salvage HDR BT

    (n=18 with spacer and 36 without spacer)

    (SpaceOAR)

    -

    -

    Median V75%

    (cc): <0.005

    versus 0.12

    (p≤0.0005)/

    (100%)

    1 patient developed a rectal abscess.

    -

    0%

    Chao 2019

    HDR BT+IMRT

    (n=32 with spacer and 65 without spacer) (SpaceOAR)

    60 months

    NCICTCAE v4.0

    10

    Median V75% (cc) 0.0 versus 0.45 (p≤0.001)/ (100%)

    Grade 1 12.5% versus 30.8% (p=0.05)

    Grade 1: 0% versus 7.7% (p=0.11)

    -

    Chao 2019

    HDR BT+IMRT or VMAT

    (n=30 with spacer and 65 without spacer) (SpaceOAR)

    58 months

    NCICTCAE v4.0

    -

    Median V75% (cc) 0.0 versus 0.45 (p≤0.001)/ (100%)

    Grade 1 13.3% versus 30.8% (p=0.05)

    Grade 2 0% versus 1.5% (p=0.48)

    Grade 1: 0% versus 7.7% (p=0.11)

    -

    Storm 2014

    HDR BT +IMRT (n=100 with spacer and 100 without spacer) (DuraSeal)

    8.7 months

    12

    Rectal D2 cc

    47±9% versus

    60±8%

    (p<0.001)/

    (21.6%)

    -

    -

    0%

    Yeh 2016

    HDR BT +IMRT

    (n=326)

    (DuraSeal)

    16 months

    NCICTCAE v4.0

    16

    maximum dose to rectum 78% versus 95%

    (SD=11.9%)/

    (17.3%)

    Grade 1: 37.4%

    Grade 2: 2.8% Most commonly diarrhoea

    Grade 1:12.7% Grade 2: 1.4% Grade 3: 0.7%

    1 case of severe proctitis

    1 case of fistula and necrotising fasciitis requiring a diverting colostomy.

    -

    Taggar 2017

    LDR BT.

    LDR BT+EBRT

    Salvage LDR BT (74 with spacer 136 without spacer)

    (SpaceOAR)

    6 months

    RTOG

    11.2

    Rectal D2 cc

    20.47% versus

    43.16%

    (p=0.000)/

    (52.6%)

    Grade 1 or 2 20.3% (n=15) versus 24.3% (n=33) (p= 0.95)

    Diarrhoea: LDR BT alone 7.7% versus 15.9%

    LDR BT +EBRT 12.5% versus 4.1%

    Salvage 12.5% versus 5.3% Proctitis: LDR BT alone 0% versus 0%, LDR BT+EBRT 0% versus 5.5% Salvage 0% versus 0%

    Rectal discomfort -8% (n=7) versus 0

    Rectal bleeding 5% (n=2) versus 21.3% (n=18).

    No grade 3 or 4 complications

    -

    6.8%

    (2 aborted due to unsuccessful hydro dissections)

    Morita 2019

    LDR BT; LDR BT+EBRT

    (100 with spacer 200 without spacer) (SpaceOAR)

    -

    11.6

    Median V100% 0.026±0.14 versus 0.318+/1 0.34 (p≤0.001)/ (91.8%)

    -

    -

    4%

    (1 aborted due to operator inexperience and premature coagulation of the solution during injection)

    ^spacer versus non-spacer.

    Key safety findings

    Study

    N

    Complications

    n

    Procedure related complications

    Teh 2014

    1 spaceOAR

    Rectal ulcer (1 month after hydrogel spacer insertion, resolved without further intervention)

    1

    Beydoun 2013 (BT)

    5 spaceOAR

    Perineal pain or rectal discomfort (resolved without intervention within 1 week)

    3

    Heikkila 2014 (LDR BT)

    10 DuraSeal

    Sensation of pressure/fullness in the rectum (self-limiting symptoms, resolved by 3 months with medication)

    1

    Heikkila 2014 (LDR BT)

    10 DuraSeal

    Sudden need for defecation (self-limiting, symptoms resolved by 3 months with medication)

    1

    Storm 2014

    (HDR BT with IMRT)

    100 with DuraSeal versus 100 without

    Infection (bacterial prostatitis and epididymitis), adjusted antibiotic prophylaxis before

    procedure

    6% (n=3)

    Wu 2018

    (HDR BT boost to EBRT)

    18 with spaceOAR versus 36 without spacer)

    Rectal perineal abscess (1 month after SpaceOAR insertion. required incision, drainage and antibiotics)

    1

    Mahal 2014 (salvage LDR BT)

    Yeh 2016 (HDR BT +IMRT)

    11 DuraSeal

    326 (SpaceOAR)

    Prostatorectal fistula requiring diverting colostomy and an interposition rotational gracilis muscle flap

    Fistula and necrotising fasciitis requiring a diverting colostomy.

    1

    1

    Yeh 2016 (HDR BT +IMRT)

    326 (SpaceOAR)

    Severe proctitis

    1

    Other complications at follow up

    Taggar 2018

    LDR BT

    LDR BT+EBRT

    Salvage LDR BT

    (74 with spacer 136 without spacer)

    (SpaceOAR)

    Diarrhoea

    LDR BT alone 7.7% versus 15.9%

    LDR BT +EBRT 12.5% versus 4.1%

    Salvage 12.5% versus 5.3%

    Rectal discomfort

    8% (n=7) versus 0

    Rectal bleeding

    5% (n=2) versus 21.3 (n=18)

    Study 6 Payne 2021

    Study details

    Study type

    Systematic review and meta-analysis

    Country

    USA, UK, Switzerland and Germany

    Study search details

    Inception to August 2020; Databases searched: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, and Embase; no language or date restrictions applied. Supplemental searches were done in the directory of open access journals, Google scholar, and reference lists of included articles and relevant meta-analyses searched. Unpublished or grey literature was also included.

    Study population and number

    n=11 studies (14 papers) with 780 people having SpaceOAR hydrogel spacer before SBRT for localised prostate cancer.

    (5 prospective and 6 retrospective studies)

    Clinical stages: localised or locally advanced prostate cancer (T1-T3), Risk category: varied but intermediate risk

    PSA levels median 8.2 (range 6.3 to 9.8 nanograms/ml)

    Age and sex

    Median age 70 years (range 69 to 73 years).

    Study selection criteria

    Inclusion criteria: randomised clinical trials or observational studies of people who had the perirectal hydrogel spacer versus patients who had no spacer before SBRT for localised or locally advanced prostate cancer.

    Exclusion criteria: review articles, commentaries, letters, studies with fewer than 5 patients, studies of other rectal spacers such as hyaluronic acid and rectal balloons, studies that did not report an outcome specified in this review and duplicate publications.

    Technique

    Intervention: Injection of a prostate-rectum spacer (absorbable polyethylene glycol hydrogel‑SpaceOAR system) between the Denonvilliers fascia and anterior rectal wall before radiotherapy.

    Radiotherapy protocols: SBRT (≥5.0 Gy fractions) protocols varied and ranged from 7 Gy to 10 Gy per fraction with total dose ranging from 19 to 45 Gy. 561/780 had dose-escalated SBRT regimens (37.5 GY to 45Gy in 5 fractions).

    Follow up

    Median 20 months (range, 9 to 24 months).

    Conflict of interest/source of funding

    The study was funded by Boston Scientific and they were involved in design and interpretation of data, review and approval of manuscript.

    Authors served as consultants, and either received personal fees, grants, honoraria, travel expenses, and non-financial support from Boston scientific and other companies.

    Analysis

    • Follow-up issues: follow up varied across studies and was limited to only mid-term.

    • Study design issues: systematic review protocol was registered prospectively and was done according to the PRISMA reporting guidelines. Comprehensive literature search was done, studies were screened and data extracted into a predesigned form by 2 reviewers, any disagreements were resolved by discussion. Multiple studies with overlapping patients were carefully assessed and included. Observational studies included were associated with risks of bias. A random-effects meta-analysis was done for analysis of rectal irradiation only. Heterogeneity was noted among study designs, patient characteristics, and SBRT protocols.

    • Study population issues: patient characteristics inconsistently reported and risk categories varied between studies. Androgen deprivation therapy usage also varied.

    • Other issues: quality of life not reported in any studies. Toxicities in other organs not assessed in this review.

    Key efficacy findings

    • Number of patients analysed: 780 patients

    Perirectal separation distance: the perirectal distance achieved with SpaceOAR implant ranged from 9.6mm to 14.5mm (median 10.8mm).

    Rectal irradiation with perirectal hydrogel spacer versus without spacer (the percentage reduction with spacer versus without spacer in the percentage of rectum having 50% (A), 70% (B), and (C) 90% of the maximum prescribed radiation dosage)

    In a pooled analysis of 5 studies, patients who had the perirectal hydrogel spacer before SBRT had 29% to 56% lower rectal irradiation compared with control patients who did not have perirectal hydrogel spacer.

    Gastrointestinal [GI] toxicity (risk of a grade 2 or 3+ bowel complication in early [<3months] and late [>3months] follow up)

    In early follow up, grade 2 GI complications were reported in 7%- 18% patients and no early grade 3 complications were reported. In late follow up, rates were 4% for grade 2 and 1% for grade 3 GI toxicity. Over a median follow up of 16 months (range 11 to 36 months), freedom from biochemical failure ranged from 96.4% to 100%.

    Study

    Early grade 2

    Early grade 3

    Late grade 2

    Late grade 3

    Freedom from biochemical failure

    Alongi (2013) (n=8)

    -

    0

    0

    0

    8/8 (100%)

    Chen (2020) (n=250)

    18/250

    (7.2%)

    0

    10/250

    (4%)

    1/250

    (0.4%)

    241/250 (96%)

    Cuccia (2020) (n=10)

    0

    0

    -

    -

    -

    Hwang (2019, 2018) (n=50)

    2/50 (4%)

    0

    0

    0

    50/50 (100%)

    Jones 2017 (Folkert 2017) (n=44)

    1/44

    0

    -

    0

    44/44 (100%)

    King 2018 (n=6)

    0

    0

    -

    -

    -

    Ogita 2019 (n=40)

    7/40 (18%)

    0

    -

    -

    -

    Pryor 2019

    Wilton 2017 (n=80)

    -

    0/80

    -

    -

    -

    Ruggeri 2014 (n=11)

    -

    -

    -

    -

    -

    Saito 2020 (n=20)

    -

    -

    -

    -

    -

    Zelefsky 2019 (n=269)

    -

    -

    -

    3/269 (1.1%)

    -

    Study 7 Mok G 2014

    Study details

    Study type

    Systematic review

    Country

    UK

    Study search details

    Search period: not reported; databases searched: MEDLINE

    Study population and number

    11 studies (reported within 12 articles), n=346 patients

    Age

    Not reported

    Study selection criteria

    Inclusion criteria: published articles and conference abstracts from preclinical and clinical studies; prostate cancer patients in whom PR spaces were implanted

    Exclusion criteria: not provided.

    Technique

    Intervention: Prostate-rectum spacers compared to each other: PEG spacers (4 studies), hyaluronic acid spacers (5 studies), biodegradable balloons (1 study), and collagen implants (1 study).

    An additional 3 preclinical studies were included (2 used PEG spacers and 1 used a biodegradable balloon spacer).

    Radiotherapy protocols: different treatment techniques used (IMRT, VMAT, IMPT, 3D-CRT, and HDR monotherapy) in the primary studies.

    EBRT (6 studies) and BT (5 studies).

    Follow up

    3 to 72 months

    Conflict of interest/source of funding

    None; Review funded by an institute for a health technology assessment report.

    Analysis

    Follow-up issues: varied across studies.

    Study design issues: review compared different spacers; comprehensive literature search was done but the review did not describe the included primary studies in detail including study designs and also did not assess the risk of bias. Dosimetric effects and clinical benefits were assessed. A narrative synthesis was done but risk of bias not considered while interpreting results.

    Study population issues: patient characteristics of the included studies not described in the overview.

    Key efficacy findings

    Number of patients analysed: 346

    Mean prostate-rectum distance, dosimetric outcomes (EBRT 6 studies)

    Study

    Spacer type (ml injected)

    Radiation technique

    Mean prostate-rectum distance (mm)

    Mean rectal Vxx Gy/% without spacer/ with spacer

    Relative reduction of rectal Vxx Gy/%

    Acute or late toxicity

    Weber 2012

    N=8

    PEG hydrogel (10)

    IMRT (78 Gy)

    VMAT (78 Gy)

    IMPT (78 Gy)

    7-10

    7-10

    7-10

    V70Gy: 9.8%/5.3% V70Gy: 10.1%/3.9% V70Gy: 9.7%/5.0%

    V70Gy: 46% V70Gy: 61% V70Gy: 49%

    -

    Pinkawa 2011

    N=18

    PEG hydrogel (10)

    IMRT (78 Gy) 3D-CRT (78 Gy)

    10

    10

    V70Gy:17.2%/7.5% V70Gy:14.4%/6.1%

    V70Gy: 56% V70Gy: 58%

    -

    Song 2013

    N=48

    PEG hydrogel (10)

    IMRT (78 Gy)

    9.7

    V70Gy:13.0%/5.1%

    V70Gy: 60%

    Focal rectal mucosal necrosis and bladder perforation (n=3, self-limiting) (Uhl 2014)

    Acute GI toxicity

    grade 1 39.6%

    grade 2 toxicity 12.5%. No grade 3 or 4 toxicities.

    Acute GU toxicity grade 1 41.7% grade 2 35.4% grade 3 2.1%.

    No grade 4 toxicities

    Late grade 1 GI toxicity 4.3% (2) no grade 2 or worse toxicity.

    Late GU toxicity grade 1 in 17.0% grade 2 toxicity 2.1%. No grade 3 or worse GU toxicity.

    Chapet 2013

    n-16

    Hyaluronic acid (10)

    IMRT (62 Gy, 3.1 Gy/fx)

    11.5

    V90%: 7.7 cc/2.1 cc

    V70%: 13.3 cc/7.6 cc

    V90%: 74% V70%: 43%

    Rectal toxicity 0% versus 30% in historical controls

    Chapet 2014

    N=10

    Hyaluronic acid (10)

    SBRT (32.5 Gy, 6.5 Gy/fx) (42.5 Gy, 8.5 Gy/fx)

    10.1

    V90% 3.2 cc/0.3 cc

    V90% 3.5 cc/0.3 cc

    V90%: 90% V90%: 91%

    -

    Noyes 2012

    N=11

    Collagen (20)

    IMRT (75.6 Gy)

    12.7

    V40Gy:

    7%-15% in collagen group

    20 to 25% without collagen

    V40Gy: 40%-65%

    No GI toxicities

    Melchert 2013

    N=22

    Balloon (16)

    IMRT/3D-CRT (74 Gy)

    19.2

    V60Gy: 30% pre-implant /15% post implant

    V60Gy: 50% (Gez 2013)

    V90%: 72%

    Acute dysuria grade 1 or 2 (58%)

    Urinary retention needing catheter (n=1)

    Diarrhoea (grade 1 17%)

    Proctitis (grade 1 8%)

    Spacer absorption: reported in 2 studies:

    Melchert 2013 (n=22, balloon implantation): complete deflation and absorption at 6 months in all except 2.

    Noyes 2011 (n=11, collagen): 50% at 6 months; 100% at 12 months.

    BT (5 studies)

    Study

    Spacer type (ml injected)

    Radiation technique

    Mean prostate-rectum distance (mm)

    Mean rectal Vxx Gy/% without spacer/ with spacer

    Acute and late toxicity

    Storm 2014 (n=100 hydrogel versus no hydrogel)

    PEG hydrogel (15)

    HDR BT monotherapy (13.5-14.0 Gy x 2 fx)

    IMRT (45 Gy) + HDR BT boost (9.5-11.5 Gy x 2 fx)

    12

    D2cc = 60%/47%

    Bacterial peritonitis 2 (had prophylactic treatment).

    Prada 2007 (n=27)

    Hyaluronic acid (3-7)

    3D-CRT (46 Gy) + HDR BT boost (11.5 Gy x 2 fx)

    20

    Dmax = 7.1Gy/5.1Gy

    Dmean = 6.1 Gy/4.4 Gy

    None related to HA implant

    Prada 2009

    (n=36)

    Hyaluronic acid (6-8)

    LDR BT 125I 145 Gy

    20

    NA

    Rectal mucosal damage 5%

    Prada 2012 (n=40)

    Hyaluronic acid (NA)

    HDR BT 192Ir 19 Gy x 1 fx

    20

    NA

    None related to HA implant

    GI toxicity: asymptomatic anal mucositis (grade 1) 12.5%

    GU toxicity -urinary obstruction grade 1 requiring catheterisation in 1 (2.5%).

    At 6 months 27.5% had mild grade 1 urinary obstruction.

    Wilder 2010 (n=10)

    Hyaluronic acid (9)

    IMRT (50.4 Gy) + HDR BT boost (5.4 Gy x 4 fx)

    13

    V70Gy = 4% in HA group

    25% in controls

    None related to HA implant

    Grade 1-3 diarrhoea 0% versus 29.7%

    Key safety findings

    Study

    Complications

    % (n)

    Noyes 2012

    n=11

    Collagen

    Acute urinary obstruction

    5/11

    Self-limiting light rectal pressure

    3/11

    Temporary catheterisation for acute urinary retention (presumed to be secondary to pudendal nerve blocking)

    1/11

    Gez 2013

    n=2013

    ERB

    During balloon insertion

    n=26

    Pain at the perineal skin/scar (ranging 1–7, VAS score)

    27 (7/26)

    Acute pain in the anus (ranging 2–9, VAS score)

    15 (4/26)

    Acute urinary retention (needed catheterisation, resolved within few hours)

    12 (3/26)

    Dysuria and nocturia (grade 1–2)

    12 (3/26)

    Penile bleeding

    4 (1/26)

    Balloon failure after implantation (needing removal)

    4 (1/26)

    Premature balloon deflation

    3

    During radiotherapy

    n=23

    Proctitis

    8 (2/23)

    Diarrhoea (grade 1)

    17 (4/23)

    Signs of blood in faeces (grade 1)

    4 (1/23)

    Constipation (grade1)

    4 (1/23)

    Erectile dysfunction

    4 (1/23)

    Fatigue

    4 (1/23)

    Decreased urine flow

    4 (1/23)

    Study 8 Ardekani 2021

    Study details

    Study type

    Systematic review

    Country

    USA, Netherlands, UK, Germany,

    Study search details

    Search period: January 2000 to December 2019; databases searched: PubMed; Additionally, a further search was done from January 2010 to December 2019 for abstracts. Reference lists of articles were also reviewed for relevant articles.

    Study population and number

    21 studies of patients with prostate cancer who had a rectal spacer during radiation therapy (n=287).

    Age and sex

    Age not reported

    Study selection criteria

    Inclusion criteria: studies in English, in humans, full text articles specifically investigating the impact of rectal displacement devices on prostate motion.

    Exclusion criteria: review articles, case reports, animal studies, lack of relevant outcome data, non-English articles, editorials and commentaries.

    Technique

    Rectal spacers used during EBRT for prostate cancer. Different radiotherapy techniques (IMRT, 3DCRT, VMAT, PT) were used.

    12 studies evaluated role of ERBs, 4 evaluated polyethylene glycol hydrogel spacers (SpaceOAR)

    4 studies assessed rectal retractors (RR), and 1 study assessed ProSpare.

    Follow up

    Not reported

    Conflict of interest/source of funding

    None reported

    Analysis

    Study design issues: systematic review protocol was done according to the PRISMA reporting guidelines. There were no prospective randomised controlled trials. All studies included were either non-randomised two-arm studies or single-arm studies, relatively small (less than 20 patients in each arm) and were heterogenous in terms of population and outcomes reported. There are conflicting findings reported by different studies, which may be due to case mix or other contextual factors.

    Other issues: only data on ERBs and hydrogel spacers is considered within this review. data on alternative rectal spacers (Prospare and RR) are out of the scope of this review as they are not biodegradable spacers.

    Key efficacy findings

    No of patients analysed: 287 (ERB in 180 and hydrogel in 107)

    Effect of ERB on prostate motion (8 studies, n=180 patients)

    Study

    No of patients

    Radiotherapy technique

    Results

    Wacher 2002

    10 with 40ml air filled ERB and 10 without

    3DCRT

    AP displacement: >5mm in 20% of ERB patients.

    >5mm in 80% of non-ERB patients.

    ERB significantly reduces maximum AP displacement of prostate (p=0.008).

    Hung 2011

    14 with 120ml water filled balloon and 15 without

    IMRT

    AP displacement: mean 5.4±3.4 mm in ERB.

    mean 7.3± 4.8 mm in non-ERB

    ERB reduces inter-fractional prostate motion but not statistically significant (p=0.22–0.38)

    Van lin 2005

    22 with an 80ml air filled ERB and 30 without

    IMRT

    AP displacement: mean 0.4±4.7mm ERB.

    0.6±4.3mm in non-ERB

    ERB does not decrease the inter-fractional prostate motion (p=NR)

    Smeenk 2012

    15 with an 100ml air filled ERB and 15 without

    IMRT

    AP displacement: 3.9 mm ERB, 3.8 mm non-ERB

    ERB does not significantly reduce the inter-fractional variation (p=0.06–0.92).

    Takayama 2011

    7 with a double ERB and 7 without

    3DCRT or IMRT

    AP displacement: 1.3 ± 0.9mm ERB; 2.8 ± 1.8mm non-ERB. ERB only reduces inter-fractional prostate motion in the AP direction (p=0.014)

    Teh 2002

    10 with an 100ml air filled ERB

    Combined radioactive seed implant and IMRT

    AP displacement: 1mm

    ERB can reduce inter-fractional prostate motion.

    Mc Gary 2002

    10 with an 100ml air filled ERB

    IMRT

    AP displacement: 0.42 ± 0.35mm

    Most improvements observe in AP displacement.

    El-Bassiouni 2006

    15 with a 60ml air filled ERB

    3DCRT

    AP displacement: 3.8±4.0mm; ERB does not eliminate prostate motion in anterior rectal wall.

    5 studies (3 two-arm and 2 single-arm studies; 113 patients) reported that using an ERB reduces intra-fractional prostate motion

    5 two-arm studies (115 patients) have reported that using an ERB does not result in a significant reduction of inter-fractional prostate motion.

    3 single-arm studies (35 patients) have reported that use of an ERB may reduce inter-fractional prostate motion.

    Effect of SpaceOAR hydrogel spacer on prostate motion (4 studies, n=107 patients)

    Study

    No of patients

    Radiotherapy technique

    Results

    Juneja 2015

    12 with hydrogel spacer versus 14 without spacer

    VMAT

    Mean prostate motion was 1.5 ± 0.8mm with spacer and 1.1 ± 0.9mm without spacer (p< 0.05). No significant difference in the average time of motion >3mm between group with and without hydrogel, which were 7.7 ± 1.1% and 4.5 ± 0.9% (p> 0.05), respectively. Therefore, hydrogel spacer has no effect on intra-fractional prostate motion.

    Hedrick 2017

    10 with ERB versus 16 with hydrogel spacer

    IGRT-PBT

    The mean vector shift was 0.9mm with hydrogel and 0.6mm with ERB (p< 0.001). These results were not clinically significant because the minimum robust evaluation tolerance was 3mm. Prostate vector shifts were similar between ERB and hydrogel for shifts >3mm (p=0.13) and >5mm (p=0.36). Prostate displacements were clinically comparable for both ERB and hydrogel spacer groups.

    Picardi 2016

    10 with hydrogel spacer and 10 without

    IGRT-VMAT

    Overall mean inter-fraction prostate displacements >5mm in AP and SI direction were similar between with and without spacer (AP direction p=0.78; SI direction p=0.47). Prostate displacements 45mm in the AP and SI directions were similar for both groups. Systematic and random setup errors were similar for both groups.

    Pinkawa 2013

    15 with hydrogel spacer and 30 without

    IMRT

    Prostate position displacement >5mm were similar for both groups (no statistically significant difference p>0.05), but posterior prostate displacement could be decreased in group with hydrogel spacer (p=0.03).

    4 two-arm studies (117 patients) reported that prostate displacements were clinically comparable with or without hydrogel spacer. One of those studies compared hydrogel spacer against ERB and found no significant differences in prostate motion.

    Toxicity results

    ERB (5 studies, 3 prospective and 2 retrospective; follow up to 62 months)

    Study

    No of patients

    Radiotherapy technique

    Toxicity results

    Van lin 2017

    Prospective randomised study

    24 with an 80ml air filled ERB versus 24 non-ERB

    3D-CRT

    Acute rectal toxicity ERB versus non-ERB Grade 1: 46% versus 50%, NS

    Grade 2: 29.2% versus 29.2%, NS

    Late rectal toxicity ERB versus non-ERB

    Grade ≥1: 21% versus 58.3%, p=0.003

    No grade 2–3 in ERB

    Goldner 2007

    Prospective study

    166 with a 40ml air filled ERB

    3D-CRT

    Late rectal toxicity Grade 0: 57%; Grade 1: 11% Grade 2: 28%; Grade 3: 3%

    VRS Grade 0: 32%; Grade 1: 22% Grade 2: 32%; Grade 3: 14%

    Deville 2012

    Retrospective study

    100 with a 100ml water filled ERB

    IMRT

    Acute GI toxicity Grade 0: 69% 1: 23% Grade 2: 8% Grade 3–4: 0%

    Wortel 2017

    Prospective phase III trial

    85 with an 80–100ml air filled ERB versus 242 without ERB

    IMRT

    Acute mucous loss: 28.4% in non-ERB versus 16.8% in ERB, p< 0.001.

    Acute rectal discomfort: 59.9% in non-ERB versus 41.0% in ERB, p=0.003.

    Late rectal complaints in the ERB group were statistically significantly lower than in the non-ERB group.

    Teh 2018

    Retrospective study

    596 with a 100ml air filled ERB

    IMRT

    Late GI toxicity

    Grade ≥2: 8.5%

    Grade ≥3: 1.2%

    Hydrogel SpaceOAR (7 studies, 3 prospective [including 1 RCT], 4 retrospective; follow up to 36 months)

    Study

    No of patients

    Radiotherapy technique

    Toxicity results

    Uhl 2013

    Prospective study

    52

    IMRT

    Presented under study 3, 6

    Mariados 2015, Hamstra 2017

    Prospective RCT

    149 with hydrogel spacer versus 79 without

    IMRT

    Presented under study 1, 2, 3,4

    Pinkawa 2017

    Retrospective study

    101 with spacer versus 66 without

    IMRT/VMAT

    Presented under study 2, 4

    Te Velde 2017

    Retrospective study

    65 with spacer versus 56 without

    IMRT

    Presented under study 2, 4

    Hwang 2019

    Retrospective study

    50

    SBRT

    GI toxicity 1 month after RT

    Grade 1: 8% Grade 2: 4% No acute or late rectal toxicity was reported.

    Dinha 2020

    Retrospective study

    92 with a 90ml water filled ERB versus 75 with hydrogel spacer

    PBT

    At 2 years

    actuarial rate of grade ≥2 late rectal bleeding was 19% in ERB arm and 3% in spacer arm; p=0.003.

    EPIC-bowel QoL composite scores were less diminished in spacer arm (absolute mean difference 5.5; p=0.030).

    Study 9 Aminsharif A 2019

    Study details

    Study type

    Review

    Country

    USA

    Study search details

    Search period: January 2015 to March 2019, in the MAUDE database.

    Study population and number

    N=25 patients

    Age

    Not reported

    Study selection criteria

    Not reported

    Technique

    Injection of a prostate-rectum spacer (absorbable polyethylene glycol hydrogel SpaceOAR) posterior to the Denonvilliers fascia and anterior to the rectal wall at the level between mid-gland and apex of the prostate before radiotherapy.

    Follow up

    Varied across studies (range 6 to 60 months)

    Conflict of interest/source of funding

    Authors state that there is no potential conflict of interest and no funding was received.

    Analysis

    Study design issues: authors reviewed the manufacturer website for the safety profile and complications associated with the SpaceOAR hydrogel and compared with voluntary reports submitted to the Manufacturer and User Facility Device Experience (MAUDE) database. The reports were examined for potential device malfunction, post-malfunction manufacturer assessment, and potential changes to patient management. All included reports and adverse events were classified and stratified according to the previously established MAUDE complication classification system.

    Study population issues: limited data about the patient and disease characteristics, physician experience, case volume reported on the database.

    Other issues: authors state that the cause of these complications is unclear and may be potentially related to the disease process or patient co-morbidities, injection or radiotherapy rather than the hydrogel spacer.

    Key safety findings

    • Number of patients analysed: 22 reports of 25 cases.

    Complications reported on MAUDE database

    Study

    Year of report

    Reported adverse event

    N=25

    Level I*

    2015, 2017

    Venous injection—No sequelae

    2

    2017

    Tenesmus with air in rectal wall—No sequelae

    1

    2018

    Venous injection—No sequelae

    1

    2018

    Rectal wall erosion—No sequelae

    1

    Level II*

    2018

    Purulent drainage from perineum requiring antibiotics

    1

    2018

    Pulmonary embolism requiring anticoagulant

    4

    Level III*

    2016,2018, 2019

    Perineal abscess requiring drainage^

    3

    2016

    Proctitis requiring colostomy^

    1

    2017, 2018, 2019

    Recto-urethral fistula requiring diverting colostomy^

    4

    2018

    Rectal ulcer and haemorrhage requiring surgery^

    1

    2018

    Perirectal fistula requiring surgical intervention^

    1

    2019

    Urinary tract infection and prostatic abscess requiring drainage^

    1

    Level IV*

    2018

    Perineal abscess^—subsequent death from alcoholic cardiomyopathy

    1

    2018

    Severe urosepsis—ICU admission

    1

    2018

    Severe anaphylactic reaction

    1

    2019

    Dizziness/nausea post-procedure leading to unresponsiveness and death (cause of death unclear)

    1

    *Classified according to MAUDE classification system: Level I (none/mild)—no harm, Level II (moderate)—minimal harm requiring minor intervention, Level III (severe)—significant harm requiring major/procedural intervention(s), Level IV (life threatening)—ICU admission/death.

    Surgical intervention was needed in 11 patients with infectious complications (proctitis and abscesses, perirectal fistulae and significant bleeding from the procedure).

    Study 10 Hall WA 2021

    Study details

    Study type

    Commentary

    Country

    USA, UK

    Study search period

    Search period: May 1, 2015, to May 1, 2020, MAUDE database.

    Study population and number

    N=85 patients

    Age

    Not reported

    Study selection criteria

    Not reported

    Technique

    Commentary including data from MAUDE database, not primary data.

    Follow up

    Conflict of interest/source of funding

    The project was supported by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre at The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust and The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK.

    Authors received some research and travel funding from companies, outside of this work. One author reports personal fees from The Institute of Cancer Research, during the conduct of the study and a patent for a prostate location and stabilisation device.

    Analysis

    Study design issues: data was accessed online. The description of each event was reviewed and scored by 2 independent radiation oncologists. Event descriptions were characterised using the Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (version 5). The results were then compared collectively, and a final adjudication of scored toxicity events was created. Reporting of adverse events on the database is voluntary and is not comprehensive so it is difficult to calculate actual rates of adverse events. They are also limited in terms of accuracy, verifiability, and scope.

    Key safety findings

    • Number of patients analysed: 85 events related to hydrogel SpaceOAR

    69% (59/85) events were grade 3, 4, or 5.

    24% (20/85) were grade 4 events, including multiple independent descriptions of colostomy (n=7) anaphylactic shock (n=2), rectal wall injection, pulmonary embolism requiring hospital admission (n=5), recto-urethral fistula (n=8)

    One death was reported.

    Study 11 Chapet PJ [2015]

    Study details

    Study type

    Case series

    Country

    France

    Recruitment period

    2010–12

    Study population and number

    n=36 patients with low-risk to intermediate-risk localised prostate cancer

    Mean prostate volume: 45.9 cc

    Tumour classification: 1c (n=18), 2a (n=10), 2b (n=8).

    Gleason score: 6 (n=22), 7 (n=14)

    PSA: mean 9.46 nanograms/ml

    Age and sex

    Mean age: 71 years; 100% male

    Patient selection criteria

    patients aged between 18-80 years, adenocarcinoma of the prostate histologically proven, low- to intermediate-risk cancer according to the D'Amico classification (T1c to T2b, Gleason score <7, and PSA <20 nanograms/ml) and Karnofsky performance score >60 were included.

    Patients with metastases, regional lymph nodes1.5 cm on CT scan or MRI, inflammatory disease of the digestive tract, previous pelvic irradiation, and previous malignant disease other than basal cell carcinoma were excluded.

    Technique

    Injection of 10 ml hyaluronic acid during hypofractionated intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) (with 20 fractions of 3.1 Gy, up to 62 Gy total dose over 4 weeks)

    Injection was done under local anaesthesia (10 ml lidocaine 1%). All patients had daily prostate repositioning on the 3 gold markers implanted. Antibiotics were given before and after injection.

    Follow up

    3 months

    Conflict of interest/source of funding

    None

    Analysis

    Follow-up issues: 1 patient who developed an adverse event (grade 3 toxicity) was excluded from the analysis because no radiotherapy was administered.

    Study design issues: prospective study in 2 centres designed to assess acute toxicity and tolerance of the injection. Acute toxicity was defined as occurring during radiotherapy or within 3 months after radiotherapy and graded according to the CTCAE version 4.0. Tolerance of hyaluronic acid (pain) was assessed on a 10‑point visual analogue scale during the injection, 30 minutes after injection and then by the use of CTC at each visit. Patients who had at least 1 week of radiotherapy were included in the tolerance analysis

    Key efficacy findings

    Number of patients analysed: 36

    Acute toxicity during and at 3‑month follow up (n=35)

    Overall toxicity

    % (n)

    Grade 0 (no toxicity)

    6 (2/35)

    Grade 1

    40 (14/35)

    Grade 2

    54 (19/35)

    Grade 3 or 4 toxicity

    0

    During radiotherapy

    Acute GU toxicity^ (at least 1)

    94.3 (33/35)

    Grade 2 toxicity (at least 1): urinary obstruction, frequency*

    54.2 (19/35)

    Acute GI toxicity^^

    57.1 (20/35)

    Grade 1 (at least 1)

    54.2 (19/35)

    Grade 2

    2.8 (1/35): proctitis

    3‑month follow up (n=34)

    GU toxicity

    41.2 (14/34)

    4 patients had grade 2 obstruction or frequency

    GI toxicity: grade 1

    2.9 (1/34)

    *The toxicity was present at baseline in 7 patients.

    ^GU toxicities included obstruction, frequency, incontinence, haematuria, infection, spasms or stenosis.

    ^^ GU toxicities included diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, proctitis and rectal mucositis.

    Key safety findings

    Haematoma developed behind the bladder in 1 patient (within hours after injection) with a moderate platelet count. This was removed by laparotomy.

    Tolerance of injection (measured on a VAS) (n=28)

    At the time of injection the mean pain score was 4.6±2.3. Thirty minutes after the injection 2 patients reported pain scores as 2 and 3/10. 3 patients had other symptoms such as lower abdominal pain, haematuria and asthenia